Cardiovascular mortality in chronic kidney disease patients: potential mechanisms and possibilities of inhibition by resin-based phosphate binders

References

• Hutchison AJ, Smith CP, Brenchley P. Pharmacology, efficacy and safety of oral phosphate binders. Nat Rev Nephrol 2011;7:578-89
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whaley-Connell AT, Sowers JR, Stevens LA, et al. Kidney Early Evaluation Program Investigators: CKD in the United States: Kidney Early Evaluation Program (KEEP) and National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 1999-2004. Am J Kidney Dis 2008;51(Suppl 2):S13-20
   Google Scholar
• Sarnak MJ, Levey AS, Schoolwerth AC, et al. Kidney disease as a risk factor for development of cardiovascular disease: a statement from the American Heart Association councils on kidney in cardiovascular disease, high blood pressure research, clinical cardiology, and epidemiology and prevention. Circulation 2003;108:2154-69
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hallan SI, Coresh J, Astor BC, et al. International comparison of the relationship of chronic kidney disease prevalence and ESRD risk. J Am Soc Nephrol 2006;17:2275-84
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foley RN, Parfrey PS, Sarnak MJ. Clinical epidemiology of cardiovascular disease in chronic renal disease. Am J Kidney Dis 1998;32:S112-19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiner DE, Tighiouart H, Amin MG, et al. Chronic kidney disease as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality: a pooled analysis of community-based studies. J Am Soc Nephrol 2004;15:1307-15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Go AS, Chertow GM, Fan D, et al. Chronic kidney disease and the risks of death, cardiovascular events, and hospitalization. N Engl J Med 2004;351:1296-305
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Magnus P, Beaglehole R. The real contribution of the major risk factors to the coronary epidemics: time to end the ‘only-50%’ myth. Arch Intern Med 2001;161:2657-60
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sarnak MJ, Coronado BE, Greene T, et al. Cardiovascular disease risk factors in chronic renal insufficiency. Clin Nephrol 2002;57:327-35
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Addabbo F, Mallamaci F, Leonardis D, et al. Searching for biomarker patterns characterizing carotid atherosclerotic burden in patients with reduced renal function. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2007;22:3521-6
   Google Scholar
• Honda H, Qureshi AR, Heimburger O, et al. Serum albumin, C-reactive protein, interleukin 6, and fetuin a as predictors of malnutrition, cardiovascular disease, and mortality in patients with ESRD. Am J Kidney Dis 2006;47:139-48
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cannata-Andía JB, Fernández-Martín JL, Locatelli F, et al. Use of phosphate-binding agents is associated with a lower risk of mortality. Kidney Int 2013;84(5):998-1008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Block GA, Hulbert-Shearon TE, Levin NW, et al. Association of serum phosphorus and calcium x phosphate product with mortality risk in chronic hemodialysis patients: a national study. Am J Kidney Dis 1998;31(4):607-17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kestenbaum B, Sampson JN, Rudser KD, et al. Serum phosphate levels and mortality risk among people with chronic kidney disease. J Am Soc Nephrol 2005;16:520-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldsmith D, Covic A. Oral phosphate binders in CKD – is calcium the (only) answer? Clin Nephrol 2014;81:389-96
   Google Scholar
• Kalantar-Zadeh K, Gutekunst L, Mehrotra R, et al. Understanding sources of dietary phosphorus in the treatment of patients with chronic kidney disease. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2010;5(3):519-30
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pohlmeier R, Vienken J. Phosphate removal and hemodialysis conditions. Kidney Int Suppl 2010;78:S190-4
   Google Scholar
• Giachelli CM. The emerging role of phosphate in vascular calcification. Kidney Int 2009;75(9):890-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ketteler K, Wuthrich R, Floege J. Management of hyperphosphataemia in chronic kidney disease – challenges and solutions. Clin Kidney 2013;6:128-36
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Raggi P, Boulay A, Chasan-Taber S, et al. Cardiac calcification in adult hemodialysis patients. A link between end-stage renal disease and cardiovascular disease? J Am Coll Cardiol 2002;20:39(4):695-701
   Google Scholar
• Goodman WG, Goldin J, Kuizon BD, et al. Coronary-artery calcification in young adults with end-stage renal disease who are undergoing dialysis. N Engl J Med 2000;342(20):1478-83
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adeney KL, Siscovick DS, Ix JH, et al. Association of serum phosphate with vascular and valvular calcification in moderate CKD. J Am Soc Nephrol 2009;20:381-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foley RN, Collins AJ, Herzog CA, et al. Serum phosphorus levels associate with coronary atherosclerosis in young adults. J Am Soc Nephrol 2009;20:397-404
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guérin AP, London GM, Marchais SJ, Metivier F. Arterial stiffening and vascular calcifications in end-stage renal disease. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2000;15(7):1014-21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Block GA, Raggi P, Bellasi A, et al. Mortality effect of coronary calcification and phosphate binder choice in incident hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int 2007;71(5):438-41
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• London GM, Guérin AP, Marchais SJ, et al. Arterial media calcification in end-stage renal disease: impact on all-cause and cardiovascular mortality. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2003;18(9):1731-40
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verbeke F, Van Biesen W, Honkanen E. Prognostic value of aortic stiffness and calcification for cardiovascular events and mortality in dialysis patients: outcome of the calcification outcome in renal disease (CORD) study. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2011;6(1):153-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matsushita K, Sang Y, Ballew S, et al. Subclinical atherosclerosis measures for cardiovascular prediction in CKD. J Am Soc Nephrol 2015;2:439-47
   Google Scholar
• London G, Marchais S, Guerin A, et al. Ankle-brachial index and bone turnover in patients on dialysis. J Am Soc Nephrol 2015;2:476-83
   Google Scholar
• Moe SM, Chertow GM. The case against calcium-based phosphate binders. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2006;1(4):697-703
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vo T-M, Disthabanchong S. Are there ways to attenuate arterial calcification and improve cardiovascular outcomes in chronic kidney disease? World J Cardiol 2014;6:216-26
   Google Scholar
• Vlassara H, Uribarri J, Cai W, et al. Effects of sevelamer on HbA1c, inflammation and advanced glycation end products in diabetic kidney disease. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2012;7:934-42
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jimbo R, Kawakami-Moni F, Mu S, et al. Fibroblast growth factor 23 accelerates phosphate-induced vascular calcification in the absence of Klotho deficiency. Kidney Int 2014;85:1103-11
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Isakova T, Craven T, Lee J, et al. Fibroblast growth factor 23 and incident CKD in type 2 diabetes. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2015;10:29-38
   Google Scholar
• Tsimihodimos V, Mitrogianni Z, Elisaf M. Dyslipidemia associated with chronic kidney disease. Open Cardiovasc Med J 2011;5:41-8
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Heymann EP, Kassimatis TI, Goldsmith DJ. Dyslipidemia, statins, and CKD patients’ outcomes – review of the evidence in the post-sharp era. J Nephrol 2012;25(4):460-72
   Google Scholar
• Reiner Z, Catapano AL, De Backer G. ESC/EAS Guidelines for the management of dyslipidaemias: the Task Force for the management of dyslipidaemias of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and the European Atherosclerosis Society (EAS). Eur Heart J 2011;32(14):1769-818
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tonelli M, Wanner C; for the Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes Lipid Guideline Development Work Group Members. Lipid management in chronic kidney disease: synopsis of the Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes 2013 clinical practice guideline. Ann Intern Med 2014;160(3):182
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grundy SM, Cleeman JI, Merz CN; Coordinating Committee of the National Cholesterol Education Program. Implications of recent clinical trials for the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol 2004;44(3):720-32
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stone NJ, Robinson J, Lichtenstein AH, et al. 2013 ACC/AHA Guideline on the treatment of blood cholesterol to reduce atherosclerotic cardiovascular risk in adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Circulation 2014;129(25 Suppl 2):S1-45
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Navaneethan SD, Pansini F, Perkovic V, et al. HMG CoA reductase inhibitors (statins) for people with chronic kidney disease not requiring dialysis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009(2):CD007784
   Google Scholar
• Seliger SL, Weiss NS, Gillen DL, et al. HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors are associated with reduced mortality in ESRD patients. Kidney Int 2002;61(1):297-304
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mason NA, Bailie GR, Satayathum S, et al. HMG-coenzyme a reductase inhibitor use is associated with mortality reduction in hemodialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis 2002;45(1):119-26
   Google Scholar
• Goldfarb-Rumyantzev AS, Habib AN, Baird BC, et al. The association of lipid-modifying medications with mortality in patients on long-term peritoneal dialysis. Am J Kidney Dis 2007;50(5):791-802
   Google Scholar
• Wanner C, Krane V, März W. Atorvastatin in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus undergoing hemodialysis. N Engl J Med 2005;21:238-48
   Google Scholar
• Baigent C, Landray MJ, Reith C, et al. SHARP Investigators. The effects of lowering LDL cholesterol with simvastatin plus ezetimibe in patients with chronic kidney disease (Study of Heart and Renal Protection): a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2011;377(9784):2181-92
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hou W, Lv J, Perkovic V, et al. Effect of statin therapy on cardiovascular and renal outcomes in patients with chronic kidney disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Heart J 2013;34:1807-17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sun W, Liu D, Shi X, et al. Biomarkers for cardiovascular mortality in chronic kidney disease patients. Exp Clin Cardiol 2014;20:3880-94
   Google Scholar
• Rastogi A. Sevelamer revisited: pleiotropic effects on endothelial and cardiovascular risk factors in chronic renal disease and end-stage renal disease. Ther Adv Cardiovasc Dis 2013;7:322-42
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brown J, Hunt L, Vites N, et al. Comparative mortality from cardiovascular disease in patients with chronic renal failure. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1994;9(8):1136-42
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Floege J, Covic AC, Ketteler M, et al. A phase III study of the efficacy and safety of a novel iron-based phosphate binder in dialysis patients. Kidney Int 2014;86:638-47
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hutchinson A. Novel phosphate binders: plus ca change, plus c’est la meme chose. Kidney Int 2014;86:471-4
   Google Scholar
• Lewis J, Sika M, Koury M, et al. Ferric citrate controls phosphorus and delivers iron in patients on dialysis. J Am Soc Nephrol 2015;2:493-503
   Google Scholar
• Locatelli F, Dimkovic N, Spasovski G. Evaluation of colestilan in chronic kidney disease dialysis patients with hyperphosphataemia and dyslipidaemia: a randomized, placebo-controlled, multiple fixed-dose trial. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2013;28(7):1874-88
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Locatelli F, Dimkovic N, Pontoriero G, et al. Effect of colestilan on serum phosphate and cholesterol levels in haemodialysis patients with hyperphosphataemia: a double-blind, randomized, placebo controlled study. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2010;25:574-81
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Senatore F, Manning A, Nakajima S. A multi-centre, open-label, flexible dose, long-term safety study of colestilan in chronic kidney disease stage 5 subjects on dialysis with hyperphosphataemia. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2012;27(suppl 2):ii52-4
   Google Scholar
• Locatelli F, Spasovski G, Dimkovic N, et al. The effects of colestilan versus placebo and sevelamer in patients with CKD 5D and hyperphosphataemia: a 1-year prospective randomized study. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2014;29(5):1061-73
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maizel J, Six I, Dupont S, et al. Effects of sevelamer treatment on cardiovascular abnormalities in mice with chronic renal failure. Kidney Int 2013;84:491-500
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wanner C, Maerz W, Varushchanka A, et al. Dyslipidemia in chronic kidney disease: randomized, controlled trial of colestilan versus simvastatin in dialysis patients. Clin Nephrol 2014;82:163-72
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hertel JE, Nakajima S, Sano H, et al. Colestilan (COLESTILAN), a new calcium-free phosphate binder, is safe and effective in stage 5 CKD dialysis patients: phase 3, randomized, double-blind (DB), placebo (PBO)-controlled, multicenter study [abstract F-PO1862]. J Am Soc Nephrol 2010;21:538A
   Google Scholar
• Dellanna F, Spasovski G, Wanner C, et al. LDL-cholesterol lowering in chronic kidney disease stage V dialysis patients with hyperphosphataemia: a comparison of colestilan (COL) and sevelamer (SEV). Nephrol Dial Transplant 2014;29(5):1061-73
   Google Scholar
• Kondo K, Kadowaki T, et al. Colestilan monotherapy significantly improves glycaemic control and LDL cholesterol levels in patients with type 2 diabetes: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study. Diabetes Obes Metab 2010;12:246-51
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Staels B, Kuipers F. Bile acid sequestrants and the treatment of type-2 diabetes mellitus. Drugs 2007;67:1383-92
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kobayashi M, Ikegami H, Fujisawa T, et al. Prevention and treatment of obesity, insulin resistance and diabetes by bile acid binding resin. Diabetes 2007;56:239-47
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duran-Sandoval D, Cariou B, Percevault F, et al. The farnesoid X receptor modulates hepatic carbohydrate metabolism during the fasting-refeeding transition. J Biol Chem 2005;280:29971-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bays HE, Goldberg RB. The ‘forgotten’ bile acid sequestrants: is now a good time to remember? Am J Ther 2007;14:567-80
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garg J, Chasan-Taber S, Blair A, et al. Effects of sevelamer and calcium-based phosphate binders on uric acid concentrations in patients undergoing hemodialysis. Arthritis Rheum 2005;52:290-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ohno I, Yamaguchi Y, Saikawa H, et al. Sevelamer decreases serum uric acid concentration through adsorption of uric acid in maintenance hemodialysis patients. Intern Med 2009;48:415-20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Himmelfarb NJ, Stenvinkel P, Ikizler T, Hakim R. The elephant in uremia: oxidant stress as a unifying concept of cardiovascular disease in uremia. Kidney Int 2002;62(5):1524-38
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morena M, Patrier L, Jaussent I, et al. Reduced glomerular filtration rate, inflammation and HDL cholesterol as main determinants of superoxide production in non-dialysis chronic kidney disease patients. Free Radic Res 2011;45:735-45
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sutra T, Morena M, Bargnoux AS, et al. Superoxide production: a procalcifying cell signalling event in osteoblastic differentiation of vascular smooth muscle cells exposed to calcification media. Free Radic Res 2008;42(9):789-97
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ikee R, Tsunoda M, Sasaki N, et al. Emerging effects of sevelamer in chronic kidney disease. Kidney Blood Press Res 2013;37:24-32
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chertow GM, Raggi P, McCarthy JT, et al. The effects of sevelamer and calcium acetate on proxies of atherosclerotic and arteriosclerotic vascular disease in hemodialysis patients. Am J Nephrol 2003;23:307-14
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guida B, Cataldi M, Riccio E, et al. Plasma p-cresol lowering effect of sevelamer in peritoneal dialysis patients: evidence from a cross-sectional observational study. PLoS One 2013;8:e73558
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• European Medicines Agency. Bindren 92 – Public assessment report, 15 November. 2012. Available from: www.ema.europa.eu/ema/index.jsp?curl=pages/medicines/human/medicines/002377/human_med_001595.jsp&mid=WC0b01ac058001d124 [Last accessed 9 November 2013]
   Google Scholar
• Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) CKD-MBD Work Group. KDIGO clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis, evaluation, prevention and treatment of Chronic Kidney Disease-Mineral and Bone Disorder (CKD-MBD). Kidney Int Suppl 2009;76(S1113):S1-S130
   Google Scholar
• Foley RN. Phosphorus comes of age as a cardiovascular risk factor. Arch Intern Med 2007;167:873-4
   Google Scholar
• Jamal SA, Vandermeer B, Raggi P, et al. Effect of calcium-based versus non-calcium-based phosphate binders on mortality in patients with chronic kidney disease: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet 2013;12:382(9900):1268-77
   Google Scholar
• Di Iorio B, Bellasi A, Russo D; Independent Study Investigators. Mortality in kidney disease patients treated with phosphate binders: a randomized study. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2012;7(3):487-93
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patel L, Bernard L, Elder G. Systematic review and meta-analysis of sevelamer versus calcium–based phosphate binders for the treatment of hyperphosphatemia in chronic kidney disease. Nephrol Dial Transplant ( abstract SP231), 2014
   Google Scholar
• Suki WN, Zabaneh R, Cangiano JL, et al. Effects of sevelamer and calcium-based phosphate binders on mortality in hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int 2007;72(9):1130-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Block G, Spiegel DM, Ehrlich J, et al. Effects of sevelamer and calcium on coronary and aortic calcification in hemodialysis patients new to hemodialysis treatment in ESRD patients. Kidney Int 2005;68:245-52
   Google Scholar
• Block GA, Wheeler DC, Persky MS, et al. Effects of phosphate binders in moderate CKD. J Am Soc Nephrol 2012;23:1407-15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fellström BC, Jardine AG, Schmieder RE; Aurora Study Group. Rosuvastatin and cardiovascular events in patients undergoing hemodialysis. N Engl J Med 2009;360(14):1395-407
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wanner C. Chronic kidney disease and statin therapy: to treat or not to treat? Eur Heart J Open Access Publication 2013;34(24):1772-4
   Google Scholar
• Lewis JB, Sika M, Koury MJ, et al. Ferric citrate controls phosphorus and delivers iron in patients on dialysis. J Am Soc Nephrol 2015;26(2):493-503
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Labonte ED, Carreras CW, Leadbetter MR, et al. Gastrointestinal inhibition of sodium-hydrogen exchanger 3 reduces phosphorus absorption and protects against vascular calcification in CKD. J Am Soc Nephrol 2014. [Epub ahead of print]
   Google Scholar
• Russo D, Ruocco C, Battaglia Y, et al. The progression of coronary artery calcification in pre-dialysis patients on calcium carbonate or sevelamer. Kidney Int 2007;72:1255-61
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar