Acute anticoagulation adjustment in patients with atrial fibrillation at risk for stroke: approaches, strategies, risks and benefits

References

• Fuster V, Ryden LE, Asinger RW et al. ACC/AHA/ESC Guidelines for the Management of Patients With Atrial Fibrillation: Executive Summary: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines and the European Society of Cardiology Committee for Practice Guidelines and Policy Conferences (committee to develop guidelines for the management of patients with atrial fibrillation). Developed in collaboration with the North American Society of Pacing and Electrophysiology. Circulation 104, 2118–2150 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levy S, Maarek M, Coumel P et al. Characterization of different subsets of atrial fibrillation in general practice in France: the ALFA study. The College of French Cardiologists. Circulation 99, 3028–3035 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peters NS, Schilling RJ, Kanagaratnam P, Markides V. Atrial fibrillation: strategies to control, combat, and cure. Lancet 359, 593–603 (2002).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allessie M, Ausma J, Schotten U. Electrical, contractile and structural remodeling during atrial fibrillation. Cardiovasc. Res.54, 230–246 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kamp O, Verhorst PM, Welling RC, Visser CA. Importance of left atrial appendage flow as a predictor of thromboembolic events in patients with atrial fibrillation. Eur. Heart J.20, 979–985 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Neill PG, Puleo PR, Bolli R, Rokey R. Return of atrial mechanical function following electrical conversion of atrial dysrhythmias. Am. Heart J.120, 353–359 (1990).
   Google Scholar
• Louie EK, Liu D, Reynertson SI et al. ‘Stunning’ of the left atrium after spontaneous conversion of atrial fibrillation to sinus rhythm: demonstration by transesophageal Doppler techniques in a canine model. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.32, 2081–2086 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• Grimm RA, Stewart WJ, Arheart K, Thomas JD, Klein AL. Left atrial appendage ‘stunning’ after electrical cardioversion of atrial flutter: an attenuated response compared with atrial fibrillation as the mechanism for lower susceptibility to thromboembolic events. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.29, 582–589 (1997).
   Google Scholar
• Sparks PB, Jayaprakash S, Vohra JK et al. Left atrial ‘stunning’ following radiofrequency catheter ablation of chronic atrial flutter. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.32, 468–475 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• Sparks PB, Jayaprakash S, Mond HG, Vohra JK, Grigg LE, Kalman JM. Left atrial mechanical function after brief duration atrial fibrillation. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.33, 342–349 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Sparks PB, Kulkarni R, Vohra JK et al. Effect of direct current shocks on left atrial mechanical function in patients with structural heart disease. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.31, 1395–1399 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• Khan IA. Atrial stunning: determinants and cellular mechanisms. Am. Heart J.145, 787–794 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Oltrona L, Broccolino M, Merlini PA, Spinola A, Pezzano A, Mannucci PM. Activation of the hemostatic mechanism after pharmacological cardioversion of acute nonvalvular atrial fibrillation. Circulation 95, 2003–2006 (1997).
   Google Scholar
• Lip GY. Does atrial fibrillation confer a hypercoagulable state? Lancet 346, 1313–1314 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lip GY. Hypercoagulability and haemodynamic abnormalities in atrial fibrillation. Heart77, 395–396 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lip GY, Rumley A, Dunn FG, Lowe GD. Plasma fibrinogen and fibrin D-dimer in patients with atrial fibrillation: effects of cardioversion to sinus rhythm. Int. J. Cardiol. 51, 245–251 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li-Saw-Hee FL, Blann AD, Lip GY. Effect of degree of blood pressure on the hypercoagulable state in chronic atrial fibrillation. Am. J. Cardiol. 86, 795–797 (2000) .
   Google Scholar
• Chung NA, Belgore F, Li-Saw-Hee FL, Conway DS, Blann AD, Lip GY. Is the hypercoagulable state in atrial fibrillation mediated by vascular endothelial growth factor? Stroke 33, 2187–2191 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kamath S, Blann AD, Chin BS et al. A study of platelet activation in atrial fibrillation and the effects of antithrombotic therapy. Eur. Heart J.23, 1788–1795 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mahe I, Drouet L, Chassany O et al. D-dimer: a characteristic of the coagulation state of each patient with chronic atrial fibrillation. Thromb. Res.107, 1–6 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gokce M, Ucar F, Kucukosmanoglu M, Erdogan T, Kaplan S. Factor V Leiden mutation and its relation to left atrial thrombus in chronic nonrheumatic atrial fibrillation. Jpn. Heart J.44, 481–491 2(003).
   Google Scholar
• Marin F, Roldan V, Lip GY. Fibrinolytic function and atrial fibrillation. Thromb. Res.109, 233–240 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uno M, Tsuji H, Sawada S, Toyoda T, Nakagawa M. Fibrinopeptide A (FPA) levels in atrial fibrillation and the effects of heparin administration. Jpn. Circ. J.52, 9–12 (1988).
   Google Scholar
• Wang J, Xie X, He H, Huang J, Lu D, Yang Q. Hypercoagulability existing in the local left atrium of patient with mitral stenosis. Chin. Med. J. (Engl.).116, 1198–1202 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arakawa M, Miwa H, Kambara K et al. Changes in plasma concentrations of atrial natriuretic peptides after cardioversion of chronic atrial fibrillation. Am. J. Cardiol. 70, 550–552 (1992).
   Google Scholar
• Cai H, Li Z, Goette A et al. Downregulation of endocardial nitric oxide synthase expression and nitric oxide production in atrial fibrillation: potential mechanisms for atrial thrombosis and stroke. Circulation 106, 2854–2858 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Minamino T, Kitakaze M, Sato H et al. Plasma levels of nitrite/nitrate and platelet cGMP levels are decreased in patients with atrial fibrillation. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol.17, 3191–3195 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noris M, Morigi M, Donadelli R et al. Nitric oxide synthesis by cultured endothelial cells is modulated by flow conditions. Circ. Res.76, 536–543 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubart M, Zipes DP. NO hope for patients with atrial fibrillation. Circulation 106, 2764–2766 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• No authors listed. The effect of low-dose warfarin on the risk of stroke in patients with nonrheumatic atrial fibrillation. The Boston Area Anticoagulation Trial for Atrial Fibrillation Investigators. N. Engl. J. Med. 323, 1505–1511 (1990).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• No authors listed. Stroke Prevention in Atrial Fibrillation Study. Final results. Circulation 84, 527–539 (1991).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• No authors listed. Secondary prevention in non-rheumatic atrial fibrillation after transient ischaemic attack or minor stroke. EAFT (European Atrial Fibrillation Trial) Study Group. Lancet342, 1255–1262 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• No authors listed. Warfarin versus aspirin for prevention of thromboembolism in atrial fibrillation: Stroke Prevention in Atrial Fibrillation II Study. Lancet 343, 687–691 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• No authors listed. Risk factors for stroke and efficacy of antithrombotic therapy in atrial fibrillation. Analysis of pooled data from five randomized controlled trials. Arch. Intern. Med. 154, 1449–1457 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gage BF, Waterman AD, Shannon W, Boechler M, Rich MW, Radford MJ. Validation of clinical classification schemes for predicting stroke: results from the National Registry of Atrial Fibrillation. JAMA285, 2864–2870 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hart RG, Halperin JL, Pearce LA et al. Lessons from the Stroke Prevention in Atrial Fibrillation trials. Ann. Intern. Med.138, 831–838 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor FC, Cohen H, Ebrahim S. Systematic review of long-term anticoagulation or antiplatelet treatment in patients with non-rheumatic atrial fibrillation. BMJ322, 321–326 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Van Gelder IC, Hagens VE, Bosker HA et al. A comparison of rate control and rhythm control in patients with recurrent persistent atrial fibrillation. N. Engl. J. Med. 347, 1834–1840 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wyse DG, Waldo AL, DiMarco JP et al. A comparison of rate control and rhythm control in patients with atrial fibrillation. N. Engl. J. Med. 347, 1825–1833 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nixdorff U. Antithrombotic strategies for the management of non-valvular atrial fibrillation. Int. J. Cardiol. 100, 191–198 (2005).
   Google Scholar
• Zeuthen EL, Lassen JF, Husted SE. Is there a hypercoagulable phase during initiation of antithrombotic therapy with oral anticoagulants in patients with atrial fibrillation? Thromb. Res.109, 241–246 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Reynolds MW, Fahrbach K, Hauch O et al. Warfarin anticoagulation and outcomes in patients with atrial fibrillation: a systematic review and metaanalysis. Chest126, 1938–1945 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cundiff DK. Anticoagulants for nonvalvular atrial fibrillation (NVAF)-drug review. MedGenMed.5, 4 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Schulman S. Clinical practice. Care of patients receiving long-term anticoagulant therapy. N. Engl. J. Med. 349, 675–683 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bungard TJ, Ghali WA, Teo KK, McAlister FA, Tsuyuki RT. Why do patients with atrial fibrillation not receive warfarin? Arch. Intern. Med. 160, 41–46 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bungard TJ, Ghali WA, McAlister FA et al. The relative importance of barriers to the prescription of warfarin for nonvalvular atrial fibrillation. Can. J. Cardiol.19, 280–284 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Gross CP, Vogel EW, Dhond AJ et al. Factors influencing physicians’ reported use of anticoagulation therapy in nonvalvular atrial fibrillation: a cross-sectional survey. Clin. Ther.25, 1750–1764 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mayet J, Wasan B, Sutton GC. Cardioversion of atrial arrhythmias: audit of anticoagulation management. J. R. Coll. Physicians Lond. 31, 313–316 (1997).
   Google Scholar
• Leung CS, Tam KM. Antithrombotic treatment of atrial fibrillation in a regional hospital in Hong Kong. Hong Kong Med. J.9, 179–185 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Kearon C, Hirsh J. Management of anticoagulation before and after elective surgery. N. Engl. J. Med. 336, 1506–1511 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wiegand UK, LeJeune D, Boguschewski F et al. Pocket hematoma after pacemaker or implantable cardioverter defibrillator surgery: influence of patient morbidity, operation strategy, and perioperative antiplatelet/anticoagulation therapy. Chest126, 1177–1186 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Camm AJ. Atrial fibrillation: is there a role for low-molecular-weight heparin? Clin. Cardiol.24, I15-I19 (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Wodlinger AM, Pieper JA. Low-molecular-weight heparin in transesophageal echocardiography-guided cardioversion of atrial fibrillation. Pharmacotherapy 23, 57–63 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Murray RD, Shah A, Jasper SE et al. Transesophageal echocardiography guided enoxaparin antithrombotic strategy for cardioversion of atrial fibrillation: the ACUTE II pilot study. Am. Heart J.139, 1–7 (2000).
   Google Scholar
• Kovacs MJ, Kearon C, Rodger M et al. Single-arm study of bridging therapy with low-molecular-weight heparin for patients at risk of arterial embolism who require temporary interruption of warfarin. Circulation110, 1658–1663 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akdeniz B, Turker S, Ozturk V et al. Cardioversion under the guidance of transesophageal echochardiograhy in persistent atrial fibrillation: results with low molecular weight heparin. Int. J. Cardiol. 98, 49–55 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Luca I, Sorino M, Del Salvatore B, de Luca L. A new therapeutic strategy for electrical cardioversion of atrial fibrillation. Ital. Heart J.2, 831–480 (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Stellbrink C, Nixdorff U, Hofmann T et al. Safety and efficacy of enoxaparin compared with unfractionated heparin and oral anticoagulants for prevention of thromboembolic complications in cardioversion of nonvalvular atrial fibrillation: the Anticoagulation in Cardioversion using Enoxaparin (ACE) trial. Circulation109, 997–1003 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bechtold H, Gunzenhauser D, Sawitzki H, Fung S, Janssen D. Anticoagulation with the low-molecular-weight heparin dalteparin (Fragmin) in atrial fibrillation and TEE-guided cardioversion. Z. Kardiol.92, 532–539 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Yigit Z, Kucukoglu MS, Okcun B, Sansoy V, Guzelsoy D. The safety of low-molecular weight heparins for the prevention of thromboembolic events after cardioversion of atrial fibrillation. Jpn. Heart J.44, 369–377 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Douketis JD, Johnson JA, Turpie AG. Low-molecular-weight heparin as bridging anticoagulation during interruption of warfarin: assessment of a standardized periprocedural anticoagulation regimen. Arch. Intern. Med. 164, 1319–1326 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zeuthen EL, Lassen JF, Husted SE. Haemostatic activity in patients with atrial fibrillation treated with low-molecular-weight heparin before and after electrical cardioversion. J. Thromb. Thrombolysis.17, 185–189 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sarich TC, Wolzt M, Eriksson UG et al. Effects of ximelagatran, an oral direct thrombin inhibitor, r-hirudin and enoxaparin on thrombin generation and platelet activation in healthy male subjects. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.41, 557–564 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eriksson UG, Bredberg U, Hoffmann KJ et al. Absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of ximelagatran, an oral direct thrombin inhibitor, in rats, dogs, and humans. Drug Metab. Dispos.31, 294–305 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaplan KL, Francis CW. Direct thrombin inhibitors. Semin. Hematol. 39, 187–196 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hopfner R. Ximelagatran (AstraZeneca). Curr. Opin. Investig. Drugs3, 246–251 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Gustafsson D. Oral direct thrombin inhibitors in clinical development. J. Intern. Med. 254, 322–334 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gustafsson D, Elg M. The pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of the oral direct thrombin inhibitor ximelagatran and its active metabolite melagatran: a mini-review. Thromb. Res.109, S9–S15 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Gustafsson D, Antonsson T, Bylund R et al. Effects of melagatran, a new low-molecular-weight thrombin inhibitor, on thrombin and fibrinolytic enzymes. Thromb. Haemost.79, 110–118 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nylander S, Mattsson C. Thrombin-induced platelet activation and its inhibition by anticoagulants with different modes of action. Blood Coagul. Fibrinolysis 14, 159–167 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Mattsson C, Menschik-Lundin A, Nylander S, Gyzander E, Deinum J. Effect of different types of thrombin inhibitors on thrombin/thrombomodulin modulated activation of protein C in vitro. Thromb. Res.104, 475–486 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petersen P, Grind M, Adler J. Ximelagatran versus warfarin for stroke prevention in patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation. SPORTIF II: a dose-guiding, tolerability, and safety study. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.41, 1445–1451 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olsson SB. Stroke prevention with the oral direct thrombin inhibitor ximelagatran compared with warfarin in patients with non-valvular atrial fibrillation (SPORTIF III): randomised controlled trial. Lancet362, 1691–1698 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Albers GW, Diener HC, Frison L et al. Ximelagatran vs. warfarin for stroke prevention in patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation: a randomized trial. JAMA293, 690–698 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Brien CL, Gage BF. Costs and effectiveness of ximelagatran for stroke prophylaxis in chronic atrial fibrillation. JAMA293, 699–706 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weitz JI. New anticoagulants for treatment of venous thromboembolism. Circulation110, I19-I26 (2004).
   Google Scholar
• Edvardsson N, Juul-Moller S, Omblus R, Pehrsson K. Effects of low-dose warfarin and aspirin versus no treatment on stroke in a medium-risk patient population with atrial fibrillation. J. Intern. Med. 254, 95–101 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gullov AL, Koefoed BG, Petersen P et al. Fixed minidose warfarin and aspirin alone and in combination vs. adjusted-dose warfarin for stroke prevention in atrial fibrillation: Second Copenhagen Atrial Fibrillation, Aspirin, and Anticoagulation Study. Arch. Intern. Med. 158, 1513–1521 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• No authors listed. Adjusted-dose warfarin versus low-intensity, fixed-dose warfarin plus aspirin for high-risk patients with atrial fibrillation: Stroke Prevention in Atrial Fibrillation III randomised clinical trial. Lancet348, 633–638 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hart RG, Benavente O, McBride R, Pearce LA. Antithrombotic therapy to prevent stroke in patients with atrial fibrillation: a meta-analysis. Ann. Intern. Med.131, 492–501 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perez-Gomez F, Alegria E, Berjon J et al. Comparative effects of antiplatelet, anticoagulant, or combined therapy in patients with valvular and nonvalvular atrial fibrillation: a randomized multicenter study. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.44, 1557–1566 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sievert H, Lesh MD, Trepels T et al. Percutaneous left atrial appendage transcatheter occlusion to prevent stroke in high-risk patients with atrial fibrillation: early clinical experience. Circulation105, 1887–1889 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crystal E, Lamy A, Connolly SJ et al. Left Atrial Appendage Occlusion Study (LAAOS): a randomized clinical trial of left atrial appendage occlusion during routine coronary artery bypass graft surgery for long-term stroke prevention. Am. Heart J.145, 174–178 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Nakai T, Lesh MD, Gerstenfeld EP, Virmani R, Jones R, Lee RJ. Percutaneous left atrial appendage occlusion (PLAATO) for preventing cardioembolism: first experience in canine model. Circulation105, 2217–2222 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meier B, Palacios I, Windecker S et al. Transcatheter left atrial appendage occlusion with Amplatzer devices to obviate anticoagulation in patients with atrial fibrillation. Catheter Cardiovasc. Interv. 60, 417–422 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Straus SE, Majumdar SR, McAlister FA. New evidence for stroke prevention: clinical applications. JAMA288, 1396–1398 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lown B, Perlroth M, Kaidbey S, Tadaaki A, Harkin D. Cardioversion of atrial fibrillation. N. Engl. J. Med. 269, 325–331 (1963).
   Google Scholar
• Lown B. Electrical reversion of cardiac arrhythmias. Br. Heart J. 29, 469–489 (1967).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Resnekov L, McDonald L. Complications in 220 patients with cardiac dysrhythmias treated by phased direct current shock, and indications for electroconversion. Br. Heart J. 29, 926–936 (1967).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bjerkelund CJ, Orning OM. The efficacy of anticoagulant therapy in preventing embolism related to D.C. electrical conversion of atrial fibrillation. Am. J. Cardiol. 23, 208–216 (1969).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lown B, Kleiger R, Williams J. Cardioversion and digitalis drugs: changed threshold to electric shock in digitalized animals. Circ. Res. 17, 519–531 (1965).
   Google Scholar
• Carlsson J, Tebbe U, Rox J et al. Cardioversion of atrial fibrillation in the elderly. ALKK-Study Group. Arbeitsgemeinschaft Leitender Kardiologischer Krankenhausaerzte. Am. J. Cardiol. 78, 1380–1384 (1996).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Botkin SB, Dhanekula LS, Olshansky B. Out-patient cardioversion of atrial arrhythmias: efficacy, safety, and costs. Am. Heart J.145, 233–238 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gallagher MM, Hennessy BJ, Edvardsson N et al. Embolic complications of direct current cardioversion of atrial arrhythmias: association with low intensity of anticoagulation at the time of cardioversion. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.40, 926–933 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olshansky B, Rosenfeld LE, Warner AL et al. The Atrial Fibrillation Follow-up Investigation of Rhythm Management (AFFIRM) study: approaches to control rate in atrial fibrillation. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.43, 1201–1208 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hohnloser SH, Kuck KH, Lilienthal J. Rhythm or rate control in atrial fibrillation-Pharmacological Intervention in Atrial Fibrillation (PIAF): a randomised trial. Lancet356, 1789–1794 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aberg H, Cullhed I. Direct current countershock complications. Acta Med. Scand. 183, 415–4 21 (1968).
   Google Scholar
• Jacoby JL, Cesta M, Heller MB, Salen P, Reed J. Synchronized emergency department cardioversion of atrial dysrhythmias saves time, money and resources. J. Emerg. Med. 28, 27–30 (2005).
   Google Scholar
• Burton JH, Vinson DR, Drummond K, Strout TD, Thode HC, McInturff JJ. Electrical cardioversion of emergency department patients with atrial fibrillation. Ann. Emerg Med. 44, 20–30 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li H, Riedel R, Oldemeyer JB, Rovang K, Hee T. Comparison of recurrence rates after direct-current cardioversion for new-onset atrial fibrillation in patients receiving versus those not receiving rhythm-control drug therapy. Am. J. Cardiol. 93, 45–48 (2004).
   Google Scholar
• Domanovits H, Schillinger M, Thoennissen J et al. Termination of recent-onset atrial fibrillation/flutter in the emergency department: a sequential approach with intravenous ibutilide and external electrical cardioversion. Resuscitation 45, 181–187 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Przybylski A, Sterlinski M, Lewandowski M et al. Risk of thromboembolic complications in patients with permanent atrial fibrillation undergoing cardioverter-defibrillator implantation. Kardiol. Pol.57, 306–312 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Berger M, Schweitzer P. Timing of thromboembolic events after electrical cardioversion of atrial fibrillation or flutter: a retrospective analysis. Am. J. Cardiol. 82, 1545–1547 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Danias PG, Caulfield TA, Weigner MJ, Silverman DI, Manning WJ. Likelihood of spontaneous conversion of atrial fibrillation to sinus rhythm. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.31, 588–592 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hart RG, Pearce LA, Rothbart RM, McAnulty JH, Asinger RW, Halperin JL. Stroke with intermittent atrial fibrillation: incidence and predictors during aspirin therapy. Stroke Prevention in Atrial Fibrillation Investigators. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.35, 183–187 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• No authors listed. Adjusted-dose warfarin versus low-intensity, fixed-dose warfarin plus aspirin for high-risk patients with atrial fibrillation: Stroke Prevention in Atrial Fibrillation III randomised clinical trial. Lancet348, 633–638 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakajima K, Ichinose M. Ischemic stroke in elderly patients with paroxysmal atrial fibrillation. Nippon Ronen Igakkai Zasshi 33, 273–277 (1996).
   Google Scholar
• Kannel WB, Abbott RD, Savage DD, McNamara PM. Coronary heart disease and atrial fibrillation: the Framingham Study. Am. Heart J.106, 389–396 (1983).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Treseder AS, Sastry BS, Thomas TP, Yates MA, Pathy MS. Atrial fibrillation and stroke in elderly hospitalized patients. Age Ageing15, 89–92 (1986).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cabin HS, Clubb KS, Hall C, Perlmutter RA, Feinstein AR. Risk for systemic embolization of atrial fibrillation without mitral stenosis. Am. J. Cardiol. 65, 1112–1116 (1990).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellenbogen KA, Stambler BS, Wood MA et al. Efficacy of intravenous ibutilide for rapid termination of atrial fibrillation and atrial flutter: a dose-response study. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.28, 130–136 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh S, Zoble RG, Yellen L et al. Efficacy and safety of oral dofetilide in converting to and maintaining sinus rhythm in patients with chronic atrial fibrillation or atrial flutter: the symptomatic atrial fibrillation investigative research on dofetilide (SAFIRE-D) study. Circulation102, 2385–9230 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stambler BS, Wood MA, Ellenbogen KA, Perry KT, Wakefield LK, VanderLugt JT. Efficacy and safety of repeated intravenous doses of ibutilide for rapid conversion of atrial flutter or fibrillation. Ibutilide Repeat Dose Study Investigators. Circulation94, 1613–1621 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oral H, Souza JJ, Michaud GF et al. Facilitating transthoracic cardioversion of atrial fibrillation with ibutilide pretreatment. N. Engl. J. Med. 340, 1849–1854 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Volgman AS, Carberry PA, Stambler B et al. Conversion efficacy and safety of intravenous ibutilide compared with intravenous procainamide in patients with atrial flutter or fibrillation. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.31, 1414–1419 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pedersen OD, Bagger H, Keller N, Marchant B, Kober L, Torp-Pedersen C. Efficacy of dofetilide in the treatment of atrial fibrillation-flutter in patients with reduced left ventricular function: a Danish investigations of arrhythmia and mortality on dofetilide (diamond) substudy. Circulation104, 292–296 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bianconi L, Castro A, Dinelli M et al. Comparison of intravenously administered dofetilide versus amiodarone in the acute termination of atrial fibrillation and flutter. A multicentre, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Eur. Heart J.21, 1265–1273 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glatter K, Yang Y, Chatterjee K et al. Chemical cardioversion of atrial fibrillation or flutter with ibutilide in patients receiving amiodarone therapy. Circulation103, 253–257 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang Y, Ramabadran RS, Boddicker KA et al. Triphasic waveforms are superior to biphasic waveforms for transthoracic defibrillation: experimental studies. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.42, 568–575 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang Y, Rhee BJ, Davies LR, Kerber RE. Quadraphasic shocks for transthoracic defibrillation: experimental studies. Circulation108, 319 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Carunchio A, Burattini M, Coletta C et al. Electrical cardioversion for atrial fibrillation: advantages of the transthoracic biphasic method. Ital. Heart J.3, 638–645 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Ermis C, Zhu AX, Sinha S et al. Efficacy of biphasic waveform cardioversion for atrial fibrillation and atrial flutter compared with conventional monophasic waveforms. Am. J. Cardiol. 90, 891–892 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Havranek E. Biphasic waveform shocks were effective and efficient for cardioversion of atrial fibrillation. ACP J. Club. 138, 8 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Khaykin Y, Newman D, Kowalewski M, Korley V, Dorian P. Biphasic versus monophasic cardioversion in shock-resistant atrial fibrillation. J. Cardiovasc. Electrophysiol.14, 868–872 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Marinsek M, Larkin GL, Zohar P et al. Efficacy and impact of monophasic versus biphasic countershocks for transthoracic cardioversion of persistent atrial fibrillation. Am. J. Cardiol. 92, 988–991 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Neal S, Ngarmukos T, Lessard D, Rosenthal L. Comparison of the efficacy and safety of two biphasic defibrillator waveforms for the conversion of atrial fibrillation to sinus rhythm. Am. J. Cardiol. 92, 810–814 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Neri G, Alitto F, Zamprogno R et al. Efficacy and safety of ambulatory electric cardioversion of atrial fibrillation with monophasic and biphasic shock. Ital. Heart J.2, 1315–1318 (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Page RL, Kerber RE, Russell JK et al. Biphasic versus monophasic shock waveform for conversion of atrial fibrillation: the results of an international randomized, double-blind multicenter trial. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.39, 1956–1963 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Scholten M, Szili-Torok T, Klootwijk P, Jordaens L. Comparison of monophasic and biphasic shocks for transthoracic cardioversion of atrial fibrillation. Heart89, 1032–1034 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Mittal S, Ayati S, Stein KM et al. Transthoracic cardioversion of atrial fibrillation: comparison of rectilinear biphasic versus damped sine wave monophasic shocks. Circulation101, 1282–1287 (2000).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kerber RE. Transthoracic cardioversion of atrial fibrillation and flutter: standard techniques and new advances. Am. J. Cardiol. 78, 22–26 (1996).
   Google Scholar
• Cooper JM, Katcher MS, Orlov MV. Implantable devices for the treatment of atrial fibrillation. N. Engl. J. Med. 346, 2062–2068 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wellens HJ, Lau CP, Luderitz B et al. Atrioverter: an implantable device for the treatment of atrial fibrillation. Circulation98, 1651–1656 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• Omran H, Jung W, Rabahieh R et al. Left atrial chamber and appendage function after internal atrial defibrillation: a prospective and serial transesophageal echocardiographic study. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.29, 131–138 (1997).
   Google Scholar
• Tse HF, Lau CP. Bleeding and thromboembolic risks of internal cardioversion for persistent atrial fibrillation. Pacing Clin. Electrophysiol. 25, 1752–1755 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Maria Amuchastegui L, Cravero C, Salomone O, Amuchastegui M. Atrial mechanical function before and after electrical or amiodarone cardioversion in atrial fibrillation: assessment by transesophageal echocardiography and pulsed Doppler. Echocardiography 13, 123–130 (1996).
   Google Scholar
• van Walraven C, Hart RG, Singer DE et al. Oral anticoagulants vs. aspirin in nonvalvular atrial fibrillation: an individual patient meta-analysis. JAMA288, 2441–2448 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hylek EM, Go AS, Chang Y et al. Effect of intensity of oral anticoagulation on stroke severity and mortality in atrial fibrillation. N. Engl. J. Med. 349, 1019–1026 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arnold AZ, Mick MJ, Mazurek RP, Loop FD, Trohman RG. Role of prophylactic anticoagulation for direct current cardioversion in patients with atrial fibrillation or atrial flutter. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.19, 851–855 (1992).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elhendy A, Gentile F, Khandheria BK, Bailey KR, Burger KN, Seward JB. Safety of electrical cardioversion in patients with previous embolic events. Mayo Clin. Proc.76, 364–368 (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Elhendy A, Gentile F, Khandheria BK et al. Thromboembolic complications after electrical cardioversion in patients with atrial flutter. Am. J. Med.111, 433–438 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gentile F, Elhendy A, Khandheria BK et al. Safety of electrical cardioversion in patients with atrial fibrillation. Mayo Clin. Proc.77, 897–904 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lanzarotti CJ, Olshansky B. Thromboembolism in chronic atrial flutter: is the risk underestimated? J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.30, 1506–1511 (1997).
   Google Scholar
• Mehta D, Baruch L. Thromboembolism following cardioversion of ‘common’ atrial flutter. Risk factors and limitations of transesophageal echocardiography Chest110, 1001–1003 (1996).
   Google Scholar
• Seidl K, Hauer B, Schwick NG, Zellner D, Zahn R, Senges J. Risk of thromboembolic events in patients with atrial flutter. Am. J. Cardiol. 82, 580–583 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sherman DG, Kim SG, Boop BS et al. Occurrence and characteristics of stroke events in the Atrial Fibrillation Follow-up Investigation of Sinus Rhythm Management (AFFIRM) study. Arch. Intern. Med. 165, 1185–1191 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wyse DG. The AFFIRM trial: main trial and substudies – what can we expect? J. Interv. Card. Electrophysiol.4(Suppl.1), 171–176 (2000).
   Google Scholar
• Van Gelder IC, Hagens VE, Bosker HA et al. A comparison of rate control and rhythm control in patients with recurrent persistent atrial fibrillation. N. Engl. J. Med. 347, 1834–1840 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fetsch T, Burschel G, Breithardt G et al. Medicamentous prevention after electric cardioversion of chronic atrial fibrillation. Goals and design of the PAFAC Study. Z. Kardiol.88, 195–207 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Ferguson JJ III. Meeting Highlights: Highlights of the XXIII Congress of the European Society of Cardiology. Circulation104, 111E–116E (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Stoddard MF, Dawkins PR, Prince CR, Ammash NM. Left atrial appendage thrombus is not uncommon in patients with acute atrial fibrillation and a recent embolic event: a transesophageal echocardiographic study. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.25, 452–459 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weigner MJ, Caulfield TA, Danias PG, Silverman DI, Manning WJ. Risk for clinical thromboembolism associated with conversion to sinus rhythm in patients with atrial fibrillation lasting less than 48 h. Ann. Intern. Med.126, 615–620 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olshansky B, Wilber DJ, Hariman RJ. Atrial flutter – update on the mechanism and treatment. Pacing Clin. Electrophysiol. 15, 2308–2335 (1992).
   Google Scholar
• Prater S, Reynertson S, Louie E, Hariman RJ, Olshansky B. Incidence of atrial thrombus in patients with Type I atrial flutter undergoing catheter ablation. Circulation94, 728 (1996).
   Google Scholar
• Biblo LA, Yuan Z, Quan KJ, Mackall JA, Rimm AA. Risk of stroke in patients with atrial flutter. Am. J. Cardiol. 87, 346–349 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liaudet L, Kehtari R, Enrico JF. Cerebral thromboembolism after direct current cardioversion for pure atrial flutter. Intensive Care Med. 23, 196–197 (1997).
   Google Scholar
• Bikkina M, Alpert MA, Mulekar M, Shakoor A, Massey CV, Covin FA. Prevalence of intraatrial thrombus in patients with atrial flutter. Am. J. Cardiol. 76, 186–189 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Irani WN, Grayburn PA, Afridi I. Prevalence of thrombus, spontaneous echo contrast, and atrial stunning in patients undergoing cardioversion of atrial flutter. A prospective study using transesophageal echocardiography. Circulation95, 962–966 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jordaens L, Missault L, Germonpre E et al. Delayed restoration of atrial function after conversion of atrial flutter by pacing or electrical cardioversion. Am. J. Cardiol. 71, 63–67 (1993).
   Google Scholar
• Wadas MA, Prater S, Martini M et al. Left atrial appendage contraction velocities are neither regular frequency nor uniform in amplitude despite apparently well organized electric activation in atrial flutter. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.29, 291A (1997).
   Google Scholar
• Corrado G, Sgalambro A, Mantero A et al. Thromboembolic risk in atrial flutter. The FLASIEC (FLutter Atriale Societa Italiana di Ecografia Cardiovascolare) multicentre study. Eur. Heart J.22, 1042–1051 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaneko K, Hirono O, Fatema K et al. Direct evidence that sustained dysfunction of left atrial appendage contributes to the occurrence of cardiogenic brain embolism in patients with paroxysmal atrial fibrillation. Intern. Med.42, 1077–1083 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Sakurai K, Hirai T, Nakagawa K et al. Left atrial appendage function and abnormal hypercoagulability in patients with atrial flutter. Chest124, 1670–1674 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Ito T, Suwa M, Nakamura T, Miyazaki S, Kobashi A, Kitaura Y. Quantification of left atrial appendage spontaneous echo contrast in patients with chronic nonalvular atrial fibrillation. J. Cardiol.37, 325–333 (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Black IW. Spontaneous echo contrast: where there’s smoke there’s fire. Echocardiography17, 373–382 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fonseca N, Caetano F, Santos J et al. Transesophageal echocardiography-guided cardioversion of atrial fibrillation. Selection of a low-risk group for immediate cardioversion. Rev. Port. Cardiol.23, 365–375 (2004).
   Google Scholar
• Klein AL, Grimm RA, Murray RD et al. Use of transesophageal echocardiography to guide cardioversion in patients with atrial fibrillation. N. Engl. J. Med. 344, 1411–1420 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kamalesh M, Subbiah S, Sharan L, Tawam M, Sawada S. Rapid formation of left atrial appendage thrombus after unsuccessful cardioversion of atrial fibrillation. Echocardiography18, 157–158 (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Klein AL, Murray RD, Grimm RA. Role of transesophageal echocardiography-guided cardioversion of patients with atrial fibrillation. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.37, 691–704 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stollberger C, Schneider B, Finsterer J. Is percutaneous left atrial appendage transcatheter occlusion an alternative to oral anticoagulation in patients with atrial fibrillation? Circulation 107, E11–E12 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Manning WJ, Silverman DI, Douglas PS. Thromboembolism after negative TEE. Circulation90, 3121–3122 (1994).
   Google Scholar
• Missault L, Jordaens L, Gheeraert P, Adang L, Clement D. Embolic stroke after unanticoagulated cardioversion despite prior exclusion of atrial thrombi by transoesophageal echocardiography Eur. Heart J.15, 1279–1280 (1994).
   Google Scholar
• Seidl K, Rameken M, Drogemuller A et al. Embolic events in patients with atrial fibrillation and effective anticoagulation: value of transesophageal echocardiography to guide direct-current cardioversion. Final results of the Ludwigshafen Observational Cardioversion Study. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.39, 1436–1442 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Black IW, Fatkin D, Sagar KB et al. Exclusion of atrial thrombus by transesophageal echocardiography does not preclude embolism after cardioversion of atrial fibrillation. A multicenter study. Circulation89, 2509–2513 (1994).
   Google Scholar
• Achenbach S, Sacher D, Ropers D et al. Electron beam computed tomography for the detection of left atrial thrombi in patients with atrial fibrillation. Heart90, 1477–1478 (2004).
   Google Scholar
• Blomstrom-Lundqvist C, Scheinman MM, Aliot EM et al. ACC/AHA/ESC guidelines for the management of patients with supraventricular arrhythmias-executive summary: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines and the European Society of Cardiology Committee for Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Develop Guidelines for the Management of Patients With Supraventricular Arrhythmias). Circulation108, 1871–1909 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rotmensch HH, Rotmensch S, Elkayam U. Management of cardiac arrhythmias during pregnancy. Current concepts. Drugs33, 623–633 (1987).
   Google Scholar
• Ueland K, McAnulty JH, Ueland FR, Metcalfe J. Special considerations in the use of cardiovascular drugs Clin. Obstet. Gynecol.24, 809–823 (1981).
   Google Scholar
• Ogburn PL Jr, Schmidt G, Linman J, Cefalo RC. Paroxysmal tachycardia and cardioversion during pregnancy. J. Reprod. Med.27, 359–362 (1982).
   Google Scholar
• Treakle K, Kostic B, Hulkower S. Supraventricular tachycardia resistant to treatment in a pregnant woman. J. Fam. Pract.35, 581–584 (1992).
   Google Scholar
• Gowda RM, Khan IA, Mehta NJ, Vasavada BC, Sacchi TJ. Cardiac arrhythmias in pregnancy: clinical and therapeutic considerations. Int. J. Cardiol. 88, 129–133 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Joglar JA, Page RL. Treatment of cardiac arrhythmias during pregnancy: safety considerations. Drug Saf.20, 85–94 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Page RL. Treatment of arrhythmias during pregnancy. Am. Heart J.130, 871–876 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pahlow B, Geisler AK, Davis GH. Management of acute paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia in pregnancy. J. Am. Osteopath. Assoc.91, 51–52, 57, 61–62 (1991).
   Google Scholar
• Rosemond RL. Cardioversion during pregnancy. JAMA269, 3167 (1993).
   Google Scholar
• Barnes EJ, Eben F, Patterson D. Direct current cardioversion during pregnancy should be performed with facilities available for fetal monitoring and emergency caesarean section. BJOG109, 1406–1407 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gronefeld GC, Mauss O, Li YG, Klingenheben T, Hohnloser SH. Association between atrial fibrillation and appropriate implantable cardioverter defibrillator therapy: results from a prospective study. J. Cardiovasc. Electrophysiol.11, 1208–1214 (2000).
   Google Scholar
• Welch PJ, Afridi I, Joglar JA et al. Effect of radiofrequency ablation on atrial mechanical function in patients with atrial flutter. Am. J. Cardiol. 84, 420–425 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Takami M, Suzuki M, Sugi K, Ikeda T. Time course for resolution of left atrial appendage stunning after catheter ablation of chronic atrial flutter. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.41, 2207–2211 (2003).
   Google Scholar