Bacteremia in children: epidemiology, clinical diagnosis and antibiotic treatment

References

• Babita SS, Mukherjee K, Saroj G, et al. Bacteriological study of bacteremia in children below 12 years. J Res Adv Dent 2013;3:1-5
   Google Scholar
• Feverish illness in children: Assessment and initial management in children younger than 5 years. National institute for health and clinical excellence (NICE) 2013; guidance.nice.org.uk/cg160
   Google Scholar
• Stockmann C, Spigarelli MG, Campbell SC, et al. Considerations in the Pharmacologic Treatment and Prevention of Neonatal Sepsis. Pediatr Drugs 2014;16:67-81
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Isaacman DJ, Shults J, Gross TK, et al. Predictors of Bacteremia in Febrile Children 3 to 36 Months of Age. Pediatrics 2000;106:977-82
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tenney JH, Reller LB, Mirrett S, et al. Controlled evaluation of the volume of blood cultured in detection of bacteremia and fungemia. J Clin Microbiol 1982;15:558-61
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ntusi N, Aubin L, Oliver S, et al. Guidelines for the optimal use of blood cultures. S Afr Med J 2010;100:839-43
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henderson KL, Johnson AP, Muller-Pebody B, et al. The changing aetiology of paediatric bacteraemia in England and Wales. 1998-2007. Journal of Medical Microbiology 2010;59:213-19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Posfay-Barbe KM, Zerr DM, Pittet D. Infection control in pediatrics. Lancet Infect Dis 2008;8:19-31
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watson RS, Carcillo JA, Linde-Zwirble WT, et al. The epidemiology of severe sepsis in children in the United States. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2003;167:695-701
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin NG, Sadarangani M, Pollard AJ, et al. Hospital admission rates for meningitis and septicaemia caused by haemophilus influenzae, neisseria meningitidis, and streptococcus pneumoniae in children in england over five decades: a population-based observational study. Lancet Infect Dis 2014;14(5):397-405
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gottberg AV. Bacterial meningitis in the era of paediatric vaccination against the encapsulated pathogens. Bacterial Meningitis Vaccine 2010;28:(6)252-9
   Google Scholar
• Elward AM, Fraser VJ. Risk factors for nosocomial primary bloodstream infection in pediatric intensive care unit patients: a 2-year prospective cohort study. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2006;27:553-60
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Becerra MR, Tantalean JA, Suarez VJ, et al. Epidemiological surveillance of nosocomial infections in a paediatric intensive care unit in a developing country. BMC Pediatr 2010;10:66
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Biondi E, Evans R, Mischler M, et al. Epidemiology of bacteraemia in febrile children in the United States. Pediatrics 2013;132:990-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• The prevention of early-onset neonatal Group B Streptococcal disease. Royal college of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists 2012; RCOG Green-top Guideline No. 36
   Google Scholar
• UK National Screening Committee. Group B Streptococcus: The UK NSC policy on Group B Streptococcus screening in pregnancy. NSC, London; 2008. Available from: www.screening.nhs.uk/groupbstreptococcus
   Google Scholar
• Ohlsson A, Shah VS. Intrapartum antibiotics for known maternal group B streptococcal colonization. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009;(3):CD007467
   Google Scholar
• Sharland M. The use of antibacterials in children: a report of the specialist advisory committee on antimicrobial resistance (SACAR) paediatric subgroup. J Antimicrob Chemother 2007;60:(1)i15-26
   Google Scholar
• Hamer DH, Darmstadt GL, Carlin JB, et al. Etiology of bacteraemia in young infants in six countries. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2015;34:e1-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scott JAG, Berkley JA, Isaiah M, et al. Relation between falciparum malaria and bacteremia in Kenyan children: a population-based, case–control study and a longitudinal study. Lancet 2011;378(9799):1316-23
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bronzan RN, Taylor TE, Mwenechanya J, et al. Bacteremia in Malawian children with severe malaria: prevalence, etiology, HIV Co infection, and outcome. J Infect Dis 2007;195:895-904
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christopher A, Mshana SE, Kidenya BR, et al. Bacteraemia and resistant gram negative pathogens among under-fives in Tanzania. Ital J Pediatr 2013;39:27
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Takem EN, Roca A, Cunnington A. The association between malaria and non-typhoidal salmonella bacteraemia in children in Sub-Saharan Africa: a literature review. Malar J 2014;13:400
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pollack MM, Patel KM, Ruttimann UE. PRISM III: An updated pediatric risk of mortality score. Crit Care Med 1996;5:743-52
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wong HR, Salisbury S, Xiao Q, et al. The paediatric sepsis biomarker risk model. Critical Care 2012;16:R174
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Han YY, Carcillo JA, Dragotta MA, et al. Early reversal of pediatric- neonatal septic shock by community physicians is associated with improved outcome. Pediatrics 2003;112:793-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baskin MN. The prevalence of serious bacterial infections by age in febrile infants during the first 3 months of life. Pediatr Ann 1993;22(8):462-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chiu CH, Lin TY, Bullard MJ. Identification of febrile neonates unlikely to have bacterial infections. The paed infec dis journ 1997;16(1):59-63
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jaskiewicz JA, McCarthy CA. Evaluation and management of the febrile infant 60 days of age or younger. Pediatr Ann 1993;22(8):477-80
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luszczak M. Evaluation and management of infants and young children with fever. Ameri Fam Physc 2001;64(7):1219-26
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alpern ER, Alessandrini EA, Bell LM, et al. Occult bacteraemia from Paediatric emergency department: current prevalence, time to detection and outcome. Paediatrics 2000;106(3):505-11
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• El-Radhi AS, Jawad MH, Mansor N, et al. Infection in neonatal hypothermia. Arch Dis child, 1982;143-5
   Google Scholar
• Clyne B, Olshaker JS. The C-reactive protein. J Emerg Med 1999;17:1019-25
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bressan S, Andreola B, Cattelan F, et al. Predicting severe bacterial infection in well-appearing febrile neonates. Paed inf dis journ 2010;29(30):227-32
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Du Pont-Thibodeau G, Joyal JS, Lacroix J. Management of neonatal sepsis in term newborns. F1000Prime Rep 2014;6:67
   Google Scholar
• Pratt A, Attia MW. Duration of fever and markers of serious infection in young febrile child. Pediatr Int 2007;49:31-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olaciregui I, Hernández U, Mun ‵oz JA, et al. Markers that predict serious bacterial infection in infants under 3 months of age presenting with fever of unknown origin. Arch Dis Child 2009;94:501-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andreola B, Bressan S, Callegaro S, et al. Procalcitonin and C-reactive protein as diagnostic markers of severe bacterial infections in febrile infants and children in the emergency department. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2007;26:672-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fernández Lopez A, Luaces Cubells C, García García JJ, et al. Spanish society of pediatric emergencies. procalcitonin in pediatric emergency departments for the early diagnosis of invasive bacterial infections in febrile infants: results of a multicenter study and utility of a rapid qualitative test for this marker. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2003;22:895-903
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramsay ES, Lerman MA. How to use the ESR in paediatrics. Arch Dic Child Educ Pract Ed 2014;0:1-7
   Google Scholar
• Reina Wong HR, Weiss SL, Giuliano JSJr, et al. Testing the prognostic accuracy of the updated pediatric sepsis biomarker risk model. PLoS One 2014;9(1):e86242
   Google Scholar
• Bacterial meningitis and meningococcal septicaemia. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE), 2010; guidance.nice.org.uk/cg102
   Google Scholar
• Sullivan TD, Scolea LJ, Neter E. Relationship between the magnitude of bacteremia in children and the clinical disease. Pediatrics 1982;69:699-702
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• La Scolea LJJr, Dryja D. Quantitation of bacteria in cerebrospinal fluid and blood of children with meningitis and its diagnostic significance. Journ of clin micro 1984;187-90
   Google Scholar
• Sadarangani M, Willis L, Kadambari S, et al. Childhood meningitis in the conjugate vaccine era: a prospective cohort study. Arch Dis Child 2014;0:1-3
   Google Scholar
• Martin NG, Sadarangani M, Pollard AJ, et al. Hospital admission rates for meningitis and septicaemia caused by Haemophilus influenzae, Neisseria meningitidis, and Streptococcus pneumoniae in children in England over five decades: a population- based observational study. Lancet Infect Dis 2014;14:397-405
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dubos F, Korczowski B, Aygun DA, et al. Distinguishing between bacterial and aseptic meningitis in children: European comparison of two clinical decision rules. Arch Dis Child 2010;95:963-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nigrovic LE, Kuppermann N, Macias CG, et al. Clinical prediction rule for identifying children with cerebrospinal fluid pleocytosis at very low risk of bacterial meningitis. JAMA 2007;297:52-60
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Invasive meningococcal disease (laboratory reports in England): 2013/2014 annual data by epidemiological year. Public health England: Health protection weekly report. Volume 9 Number 3 Published on: 23 January 2015
   Google Scholar
• Brogan PA, Raffles A. The management of fever and petechiae: making sense of rash decisions. Arch Dis Child 2000;83:506-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baraff LJ. Management of infants and young children with fever without source. Pediatr Ann 2008;37(10):673-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nijman RG, Vergouwe Y, Thompson M, et al. Clinical prediction model to aid emergency doctors managing febrile children at risk of serious bacterial infections: diagnostic study. BMJ 2013;346:f1706
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garra G, Cunningham SJ, Crain EF. Reappraisal of criteria used to predict serious bacterial illness in febrile infants less than 8 weeks of age. Acad Emerg Med 2005;12:921-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bachur RG, Harper MB. Predictive model for serious bacterial infections among infants younger than 3 months of age. Pediatrics 2001;108(2):311-16
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bizzarro MJ, Dembry LM, Baltimore RS, et al. Changing patterns in neonatal Escherichia coli sepsis and ampicillin resistance in the era of intrapartum antibiotic prophylaxis. Pediatrics 2008;121:689
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Antibiotics for early onset neonatal infection. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) 2014. clinical guideline 149; evidence update 62
   Google Scholar
• Van Der Zwet WC, Parlevliet GA, Savelkoul PH, et al. Outbreak of Bacillus cereus infections in a neonatal intensive care unit traced to balloons used in manual ventilation. J Clin Microbiol 2000;38:4131-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Investigation into bacillus cereus infections. Available from: www.gov.uk/government/news/investigation-into-bacillus-cereus-infections
   Google Scholar
• Bonadio WA, McElroy K, Jacopy PL, et al. Relationship of fever magnitude to rate of serious bacterial infections in infants aged 4 – 8 weeks. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 1991;30:478-80
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shah SS, Dugan MH, Bell LM, et al. Blood cultures in the emergency department evaluation of childhood pneumonia. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2011;30(6):475-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heine D, Cochran C, Moore M, et al. The prevalence of bacteremia in pediatric patients with community-acquired pneumonia: guidelines to reduce the frequency of obtaining blood cultures. Hospital Pediatrics 2013;3:92-6
   Google Scholar
• Rushton HG. Urinary tract infections in children. epidemiology, evaluation, and management. Pediatr Clin North Am 1997;44:1133-69
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Averbuch D, Nir-Paz R, Tenenbaum A, et al. Factors associated with bacteremia in young infants with urinary tract infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2014;33:571-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shaikh N, Morone NE, Bost JE, et al. Prevalence of urinary tract infection in childhood: A meta-analysis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2008;27(4):302-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoberman A, Charron M, Hickey RW, et al. Imaging studies after a first febrile urinary tract infection in young children. N Engl J Med 2003;348(3):195-202
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Honkinen O, Jahnukainen T, Mertsola J, et al. Bacteremic urinary tract infection in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2000;19:630-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts KB, Downs SM, Finnell SME, et al. Urinary tract infection: clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis and management of the initial uti in febrile infants and children 2 to 24 months. Pediatrics 2011;128:595-609
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Axford JS. Bone and joint infections. Medicine 2010;38:(4)194-201
   Google Scholar
• Gutierrez K. Bone and joint infections in children. Pediatr Clin N Am 2005;52:779-94
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitha A, Boutry N, Nectoux E, et al. Community-acquired bone and joint infections in children: a 1-year prospective epidemiological study. Arch Dis Child 2014;0:1-4
   Google Scholar
• McMahon AM. Bone and joint infections. Paediatr Child Health 2011;21(12):546-51
   Google Scholar
• Faust SN, Clark J, Pallett A, et al. Managing bone and joint infection in children. Arch Dis Child 2012;97:545-53
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riise ØR, Kirkhus E, Handeland KS, et al. Childhood osteomyelitis-incidence and differentiation from other acute onset musculoskeletal features in a population-based study. BMC Pediatr 2008;8:45
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pääkkönen M, Peltola H. Bone and joint infections. Pediatr Clin North Am 2013;60:425-36
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yagupsky P, Dubnov-Raz G, Gene A, et al. Differentiating kingella kingae septic arthritis of the hip from transient synovitis in young children. J Pediatr 2014;165:985-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peltola H, Pääkkönen M. Acute osteomyelitis in children. N Engl J Med 2014;370:352-60
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ritz N, Curtis N. The role of panton-valentine leukocidin in staphylococcus aureus musculoskeletal infections in children. Pediatr Infec Dis Journ 2012;31(5):514-18
   Google Scholar
• Thwaites GE, Edgeworth JD, Gkrania-Klotsas E, et al. Clinical management of staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia. Lancet Infect Dis 2011;11:208-22
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kesson AM, Kakakios A. Immunocompromised children: conditions and infectious agents. Paediatr Respir Rev 2007;8(3):231-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Naik JD, Sathiyaseelan SRK, Vasudev NS. Febrile neutropenia. BMJ 2010;341:c6981
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ammann RA, Laws HJ, Schrey D, et al. Bloodstream infection in paediatric cancer centres-leukaemia and relapsed malignancies are independent risk factors. Eur J Pediatr 2015;174:675-86
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Downes KJ, Zaoutis TE, Shah SS. Guidelines for Management of Children With Fever and Neutropenia. J Pediatr Infect Dis Soc 2013;2:(3)281-5
   Google Scholar
• Gomez B, Hernandez-Bou S, Garcia-Garcia JJ, et al. Bacteremia in previously healthy children in Emergency Departments: clinical and microbiological characteristics and outcome. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2014;34(3):453-60
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hernandez-Bou S, Trenchs V, Batlle A, et al. Occult bacteraemia is uncommon in febrile infants who appear well, and close clinical follow-up is more appropriate than blood tests. Acta Pædiatrica 2015;104:e76-81
   Google Scholar
• Reina MP, Alcantara RI, Mico VS, et al. Accuracy of the procalcitonin test in the diagnosis of occult bacteremia in paediatrics: a systematic review and meta-analysis. An Pediatr (Barc) 2010;72(6):403-12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manzano S, Bailey B, Gervaix A, et al. Markers for bacterial infection in children with fever without source. Arch Dis Child 2011;96:440-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holstiege J, Schink T, Molokhia M, et al. Systemic antibiotic prescribing to paediatric outpatients in 5 European countries: a population-based cohort study. BMC Pediatr 2014;14:174
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henderson Dellinger RP, Levy MM, Rhodes A, et al. Surviving sepsis campaign guidelines committee including the pediatric subgroup: surviving sepsis campaign: international guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock: 2012. Crit Care Med 2013;41:580-637
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• El Desoky ES, Sheikh AA, Al Hammadi AY. Aminoglycoside and vancomycin serum concentration monitoring and mortality due to neonatal sepsis in Saudi Arabia. J Clin Pharm Ther 2003;28(6):479-83
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Livermore DM, Hope R, Reynolds R, et al. Declining cephalosporin and fluroquinolone non-susceptibility among bloodstream enterobacteriaceae from the UK: links to prescribing change? J Antimicrob Chemother 2013;68(11):2667-74
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hersh AL, Gerber JS, Hicks LA, Pavia AT. Lessons learned in antibiotic stewardship: fluoroquinoone use in pediatrics. J Pediatr Infect Dis Soc 2015;4:57-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tetracycline group in children. World Health Organisation: selection and use of essential medicines. Fact sheet, Geneva; 2008
   Google Scholar
• Schneider-Lindner V, Quach C, Hanley JA, et al. Secular trends of antibacterial prescribing in UK paediatric primary care. J Antimicrob Chemother 2011;66:424-33
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for disease control and prevention 2013: active bacterial core surveillance report, emerging infections program network, Streptococcus pneumoniae. 2011. Available from: www.cdc.gov/abcs/reports-findings/survreports/spneu11.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Schrag SJ, Beall B, Dowell S. Resistant pneumococcal infections. respiratory diseases branch
. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. World Health Organisation 2001
   Google Scholar
• Henderson KL, Muller-Pebody B, Johnson AP, et al. Group A. First set-up meeting for antibiotic resistance and prescribing in European Children (ARPEC). Euro Surveill 2009;14(45)
   Google Scholar
• Acquah SEK, Quaye L, Sagoe K, et al. Susceptibility of bacterial etiological agents to commonly-used antimicrobial agents in children with sepsis at the tamale teaching hospital. BMC Infect Dis 2013;13:89
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thaver D, Ali SA, Zaidi AKM. Antimicrobial resistance among neonatal pathogens in developing countries. The Pedia Infec Dise Journ 2009;28:(1)S19-21
   Google Scholar
• Christopher A, Mshana SE, Kidenya BR, et al. Bacteremia and resistant gram-negative pathogens among under-fives in Tanzania. Ital J Pediatr 2013;39:27
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lukac PJ, Bonomo RA, Logan LK. Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing enterobacteriaceae in children: Old Foe, Emerging Threat. Clin Infect Dis 2015;60(9):1389-97
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jaramillo-Bustamante JC, Marín-Agudelo A, Fernández-Laverde M, et al. Epidemiology of sepsis in pediatric intensive care units: first Colombian multicenter study. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2012;13:501-8
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Proulx F, Joyal JS, Mariscalco MM, et al. The pediatric multiple organ dysfunction syndrome. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2009;10:12-22
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiss SL, Parker B, Bullock ME, et al. Defining pediatric sepsis by different criteria: discrepancies in populations and implications for clinical practice. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2012;13:e219-26
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu L, Oza S, Hogan D, et al. Global, regional, and national causes of child mortality in 2000-13, with projections to inform post-2015 priorities: an updated systematic analysis. Lancet 2015;385:430-40
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Brien KL, Wolfson LJ, Watt JP, et al. Burden of disease caused by streptococcus pneumoniae in children younger than 5 years: global estimates. Lancet 2009;374:893-902
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edmond K, Clark A, Korczak VS, et al. Global and regional risk of disabling sequelae from bacterial meningitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis 2010;10:317-28
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chávez-Bueno S, McCracken GH. Bacterial meningitis in children. Paediatr Clin N Am 2005;52:795-810
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Orellana P, Baquedano P, Rangarajan V, et al. Relationship between acute pyelonephritis, renal scarring, and vesicoureteral reflux: results of a coordinated research project. Pediatr Nephrol 2004;19(10):1122-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pammi M, Zhong D, Johnson Y, et al. Polymicrobial bloodstream infections in the neonatal intensive care unit are associated with increased mortality: a case-control study. BMC Infect Dis 2014;14:390
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitha A, Foix-L Helias L, Arnaud A, et al. Neonatal infection and 5-year neurodevelopmental outcome of very preterm infants. Pediatrics 2013;132:e372-80
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harris KA, Hartley JC. Development of broad-range 16S rDNA PCR for use in the routine diagnostic clinical microbiological service. Journ of med microbio 2003;52:685-91
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dixon P, Davies P, Hollingworth W, et al. A systematic review of matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionisation time-of-flight mass spectrometry compared to routine microbiological methods for the time taken to identify microbial organisms from positive blood cultures. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2015;34:863-76
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Licugnano B, Ranno S, Liesenfeld O, et al. Multiplex PCR Allows Rapid and Accurate Diagnosis of Bloodstream Infections in newborns and children with suspected sepsis. Journ of Clin Micro 2011;49(6):2252-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tonje RN, Farstad T, Nakstad B, et al. Comparison of broad range 16S rDNA PCR and conventional blood culture for diagnosis of sepsis in the newborn: a case control study. BMC Pediatr 2009;9:5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shang S, Chien G, Wu Y, et al. Rapid diagnosis of bacterial sepsis with PCR amplification and microarray hybridization in 16S rRNA gene. Paed research 2005;58:1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• European centre for disease prevention and control. Available from: www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications/Publications/Forms/ECDC_DispForm.aspx?ID=998
   Google Scholar
• Tacconelli E, Cataldo MA, Dancer SJ, et al. ESCMID guidelines for the management of the infection control measures to reduce transmission of multidrug-resistant gram-negative bacteria in hospitalized patients. Clin Microbiol Infect 2014;20(1):1-55
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Costa GA, Delgado AF, Ferraro A, et al. Application of the pediatric risk of mortality score (PRISM) score and determination of mortality risk factors in a tertiary pediatric intensive care unit. Clinics 2010;65(11):1087-92
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Grady N, Alexander M, Dellinger E, et al. Guidelines for the prevention of intravascular catheter-related infections. MMWR Re- comm Rep 2002;55(10):1-26
   Google Scholar
• On the CUSP: stop BSI. Manuals and toolkits. Available from: www onthecuspstophai.org/on-the-cuspstop-bsi/toolkits-and-resources/ [Last accessed 29 August 2012]
   Google Scholar
• Miller MR, Niedner MF, Huskins C, et al. Reducing PICU central line-associated bloodstream infections: 3-year results. Paediatrics 2011;128(5):1077-83
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bion J, Richardson A, Hibbert P, et al. ‘Matching Michigan’: a 2-year stepped interventional programme to minimise central venous catheter- blood stream infections in intensive care units in England. Qual Saf Health Care 2013;22:110-23
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Milstone AM, Elward A, Song X, et al. Daily chlorhexidine bathing to reduce bacteremia in critically ill children: a multicenter, cluster-randomized, two-period crossover trail. Lancet 2013;381(9872):1099-106
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karumbi J, Mulaku M, Aluvaala J, et al. Topical umbilical cord care for prevention of infection and neonatal mortality. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2013;31(1):78-83
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Urinary tract infections in children. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE), 2007; guidance.nice.org.uk/cg54
   Google Scholar