Influenza-associated bacterial pneumonia; managing and controlling infection on two fronts

References

• Molinari NA, Ortega-Sanchez IR, Messonnier ML, et al. The annual impact of seasonal influenza in the US: measuring disease burden and costs. Vaccine 2007;25(27):5086-96
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morris JA, Kasel JA, Saglam M, et al. Immunity to influenza to antibody levels. N Engl J Med 1966;274(10):527-35
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Suess T, Remschmidt C, Schink SB, et al. Comparison of shedding characteristics of seasonal influenza virus (sub)types and influenza A(H1N1)pdm09; Germany, 2007-2011. PLoS One 2012;7(12):e51653
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peltola V, Ziegler T, Ruuskanen O. Influenza A and B virus infections in children. Clin Infect Dis 2003;36(3):299-305
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foy HM, Cooney MK, Allan ID, et al. Influenza B in households: virus shedding without symptoms or antibody response. Am J Epidemiol 1987;126(3):506-15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patrozou E, Mermel LA. Does influenza transmission occur from asymptomatic infection or prior to symptom onset? Public Health Rep 2009;124(2):193-6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hayward AC, Fragaszy EB, Bermingham A, et al. Comparative community burden and severity of seasonal and pandemic influenza: results of the Flu Watch cohort study. Lancet Respir Med 2014;2(6):445-54
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Metersky ML, Masterton RG, Lode H, et al. Epidemiology, microbiology, and treatment considerations for bacterial pneumonia complicating influenza. Int J Infect Dis 2012;16(5):e321-31
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rello J, Pop-Vicas A. Clinical review: primary influenza viral pneumonia. Crit Care 2009;13(6):235
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rice TW, Rubinson L, Uyeki TM, et al. Critical illness from 2009 pandemic influenza A virus and bacterial coinfection in the United States. Crit Care Med 2012;40(5):1487-98
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seki M, Kosai K, Yanagihara K, et al. Disease severity in patients with simultaneous influenza and bacterial pneumonia. Intern Med 2007;46(13):953-8
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ballinger MN, Standiford TJ. Postinfluenza bacterial pneumonia: host defenses gone awry. J Interferon Cytokine Res 2010;30(9):643-52
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shrestha S, Foxman B, Weinberger DM, et al. Identifying the interaction between influenza and pneumococcal pneumonia using incidence data. Sci Transl Med 2013;5(191): 191ra184
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Deng JC. Viral-bacterial interactions-therapeutic implications. Influenza Other Respir Viruses 2013;7 Suppl 3:24-35
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Taubenberger JK, Morens DM. 1918 Influenza: the mother of all pandemics. Emerg Infect Dis 2006;12(1):15-22
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morens DM, Taubenberger JK, Fauci AS. Predominant role of bacterial pneumonia as a cause of death in pandemic influenza: implications for pandemic influenza preparedness. J Infect Dis 2008;198(7):962-70
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sheng ZM, Chertow DS, Ambroggio X, et al. Autopsy series of 68 cases dying before and during the 1918 influenza pandemic peak. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2011;108(39):16416-21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shanks GD, Brundage JF. Pathogenic responses among young adults during the 1918 influenza pandemic. Emerg Infect Dis 2012;18(2):201-7
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schwarzmann SW, Adler JL, Sullivan RJ, et al. Bacterial pneumonia during the Hong Kong influenza epidemic of 1968-1969. Arch Intern Med 1971;127(6):1037-41
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kumar A, Zarychanski R, Pinto R, et al. Critically ill patients with 2009 influenza A(H1N1) infection in Canada. Jama 2009;302(17):1872-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blyth CC, Webb SA, Kok J, et al. The impact of bacterial and viral co-infection in severe influenza. Influenza Other Respir Viruses 2013;7(2):168-76
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muscedere J, Ofner M, Kumar A, et al. The occurrence and impact of bacterial organisms complicating critical care illness associated with 2009 influenza A(H1N1) infection. Chest 2013;144(1):39-47
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hayden FG, Osterhaus AD, Treanor JJ, et al. Efficacy and safety of the neuraminidase inhibitor zanamivir in the treatment of influenza virus infections. GG167 Influenza Study Group. N Engl J Med 1997;337(13):874-80
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicholson KG, Aoki FY, Osterhaus AD, et al. Efficacy and safety of oseltamivir in treatment of acute influenza: a randomised controlled trial. Neuraminidase Inhibitor Flu Treatment Investigator Group. Lancet 2000;355(9218):1845-50
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Treanor JJ, Hayden FG, Vrooman PS, et al. Efficacy and safety of the oral neuraminidase inhibitor oseltamivir in treating acute influenza: a randomized controlled trial. US Oral Neuraminidase Study Group. Jama 2000;283(8):1016-24
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mandell LA, Wunderink RG, Anzueto A, et al. Infectious Diseases Society of America/American Thoracic Society consensus guidelines on the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Clin Infect Dis 2007;44(Suppl 2):S27-72
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weinberger DM, Harboe ZB, Viboud C, et al. Pneumococcal disease seasonality: incidence, severity and the role of influenza activity. Eur Respir J 2014;43(3):833-41
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Weinberger DM, Harboe ZB, Viboud C, et al. Serotype-specific effect of influenza on adult invasive pneumococcal pneumonia. J Infect Dis 2013;208(8):1274-80
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fleming-Dutra KE, Taylor T, Link-Gelles R, et al. Effect of the 2009 influenza A(H1N1) pandemic on invasive pneumococcal pneumonia. J Infect Dis 2013;207(7):1135-43
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pedro-Botet ML, Burgos J, Lujan M, et al. Impact of the 2009 influenza A H1N1 pandemic on invasive pneumococcal disease in adults. Scand J Infect Dis 2014;46(3):185-92
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stuart-Harris CH. Influenza. Practitioner 1953;171(1026):595-600
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Randolph AG, Vaughn F, Sullivan R, et al. Critically ill children during the 2009-2010 influenza pandemic in the United States. Pediatrics 2011;128(6):e1450-8
   Google Scholar
• Rubinstein E, Kollef MH, Nathwani D. Pneumonia caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Clin Infect Dis 2008;46(Suppl 5):S378-85
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murray RJ, Robinson JO, White JN, et al. Community-acquired pneumonia due to pandemic A(H1N1)2009 influenza virus and methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus co-infection. PLoS One 2010;5(1):e8705
   Google Scholar
• Paddock CD, Liu L, Denison AM, et al. Myocardial injury and bacterial pneumonia contribute to the pathogenesis of fatal influenza B virus infection. J Infect Dis 2012;205(6):895-905
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gutierrez C, Nazar GA, Torres JP. Otolaryngological complications in patients infected with the influenza A (H1N1) virus. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2012;146(3):478-82
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hubert B, Watier L, Garnerin P, et al. Meningococcal disease and influenza-like syndrome: a new approach to an old question. J Infect Dis 1992;166(3):542-5
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jensen ES, Lundbye-Christensen S, Samuelsson S, et al. A 20-year ecological study of the temporal association between influenza and meningococcal disease. Eur J Epidemiol 2004;19(2):181-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cartwright KA, Jones DM, Smith AJ, et al. Influenza A and meningococcal disease. Lancet 1991;338(8766):554-7
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Young LS, LaForce FM, Head JJ, et al. A simultaneous outbreak of meningococcal and influenza infections. N Engl J Med 1972;287(1):5-9
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Harrison LH, Armstrong CW, Jenkins SR, et al. A cluster of meningococcal disease on a school bus following epidemic influenza. Arch Intern Med 1991;151(5):1005-9
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McCullers JA. The co-pathogenesis of influenza viruses with bacteria in the lung. Nat Rev Microbiol 2014;12(4):252-62
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plotkowski MC, Puchelle E, Beck G, et al. Adherence of type I Streptococcus pneumoniae to tracheal epithelium of mice infected with influenza A/PR8 virus. Am Rev Respir Dis 1986;134(5):1040-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hinshaw VS, Olsen CW, Dybdahl-Sissoko N, et al. Apoptosis: a mechanism of cell killing by influenza A and B viruses. J Virol 1994;68(6):3667-73
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCullers JA. Insights into the interaction between influenza virus and pneumococcus. Clin Microbiol Rev 2006;19(3):571-82
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siegel SJ, Roche AM, Weiser JN. Influenza promotes pneumococcal growth during coinfection by providing host sialylated substrates as a nutrient source. Cell Host Microbe 2014;16(1):55-67
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Avadhanula V, Rodriguez CA, Devincenzo JP, et al. Respiratory viruses augment the adhesion of bacterial pathogens to respiratory epithelium in a viral species- and cell type-dependent manner. J Virol 2006;80(4):1629-36
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pittet LA, Hall-Stoodley L, Rutkowski MR, et al. Influenza virus infection decreases tracheal mucociliary velocity and clearance of Streptococcus pneumoniae. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2010;42(4):450-60
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghoneim HE, Thomas PG, McCullers JA. Depletion of alveolar macrophages during influenza infection facilitates bacterial superinfections. J Immunol 2013;191(3):1250-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen WH, Toapanta FR, Shirey KA, et al. Potential role for alternatively activated macrophages in the secondary bacterial infection during recovery from influenza. Immunol Lett 2012;141(2):227-34
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sun K, Metzger DW. Inhibition of pulmonary antibacterial defense by interferon-gamma during recovery from influenza infection. Nat Med 2008;14(5):558-64
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith AM, Adler FR, Ribeiro RM, et al. Kinetics of coinfection with influenza A virus and Streptococcus pneumoniae. PLoS Pathog 2013;9(3):e1003238
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li W, Moltedo B, Moran TM. Type I interferon induction during influenza virus infection increases susceptibility to secondary Streptococcus pneumoniae infection by negative regulation of gammadelta T cells. J Virol 2012;86(22):12304-12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zavitz CC, Bauer CM, Gaschler GJ, et al. Dysregulated macrophage-inflammatory protein-2 expression drives illness in bacterial superinfection of influenza. J Immunol 2010;184(4):2001-13
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shahangian A, Chow EK, Tian X, et al. Type I IFNs mediate development of postinfluenza bacterial pneumonia in mice. J Clin Invest 2009;119(7):1910-20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kash JC, Walters KA, Davis AS, et al. Lethal synergism of 2009 pandemic H1N1 influenza virus and Streptococcus pneumoniae coinfection is associated with loss of murine lung repair responses. mBio 2011;2:5
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ichinohe T, Pang IK, Kumamoto Y, et al. Microbiota regulates immune defense against respiratory tract influenza A virus infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2011;108(13):5354-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abt MC, Osborne LC, Monticelli LA, et al. Commensal bacteria calibrate the activation threshold of innate antiviral immunity. Immunity 2012;37(1):158-70
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang J, Li F, Sun R, et al. Bacterial colonization dampens influenza-mediated acute lung injury via induction of M2 alveolar macrophages. Nat Commun 2013;4:2106
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Milton DK, Fabian MP, Cowling BJ, et al. Influenza virus aerosols in human exhaled breath: particle size, culturability, and effect of surgical masks. PLoS Pathog 2013;9(3):e1003205
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bischoff WE, Swett K, Leng I, et al. Exposure to influenza virus aerosols during routine patient care. J Infect Dis 2013;207(7):1037-46
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cowling BJ, Ip DK, Fang VJ, et al. Aerosol transmission is an important mode of influenza A virus spread. Nat Commun 2013;4:1935
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bischoff WE, Reid T, Russell GB, et al. Transocular entry of seasonal influenza-attenuated virus aerosols and the efficacy of n95 respirators, surgical masks, and eye protection in humans. J Infect Dis 2011;204(2):193-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chatterjee SS, Otto M. Improved understanding of factors driving methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus epidemic waves. Clin Epidemiol 2013;5:205-17
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Price JR, Golubchik T, Cole K, et al. Whole-genome sequencing shows that patient-to-patient transmission rarely accounts for acquisition of Staphylococcus aureus in an intensive care unit. Clin Infect Dis 2014;58(5):609-18
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harris SR, Cartwright EJ, Torok ME, et al. Whole-genome sequencing for analysis of an outbreak of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: a descriptive study. Lancet Infect Dis 2013;13(2):130-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bischoff WE, Wallis ML, Tucker BK, et al. "Gesundheit!" sneezing, common colds, allergies, and Staphylococcus aureus dispersion. J Infect Dis 2006;194(8):1119-26
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wadowsky RM, Mietzner SM, Skoner DP, et al. Effect of experimental influenza A virus infection on isolation of Streptococcus pneumoniae and other aerobic bacteria from the oropharynges of allergic and nonallergic adult subjects. Infect Immunity 1995;63(4):1153-7
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McCullers JA, McAuley JL, Browall S, et al. Influenza enhances susceptibility to natural acquisition of and disease due to Streptococcus pneumoniae in ferrets. J Infect Dis 2010;202(8):1287-95
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tong HH, Weiser JN, James MA, DeMaria TF. Effect of influenza A virus infection on nasopharyngeal colonization and otitis media induced by transparent or opaque phenotype variants of Streptococcus pneumoniae in the chinchilla model. Infect Immun 2001;69(1):602-6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nakamura S, Davis KM, Weiser JN. Synergistic stimulation of type I interferons during influenza virus coinfection promotes Streptococcus pneumoniae colonization in mice. J Clin Invest 2011;121(9):3657-65
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van den Bergh MR, Biesbroek G, Rossen JW, et al. Associations between pathogens in the upper respiratory tract of young children: interplay between viruses and bacteria. PLoS One 2012;7(10):e47711
   Google Scholar
• Diavatopoulos DA, Short KR, Price JT, et al. Influenza A virus facilitates Streptococcus pneumoniae transmission and disease. FASEB J 2010;24(6):1789-98
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tashiro M, Ciborowski P, Klenk HD, et al. Role of Staphylococcus protease in the development of influenza pneumonia. Nature 1987;325(6104):536-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tashiro M, Ciborowski P, Reinacher M, et al. Synergistic role of staphylococcal proteases in the induction of influenza virus pathogenicity. Virology 1987;157(2):421-30
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Reimer LG, Carroll KC. Role of the microbiology laboratory in the diagnosis of lower respiratory tract infections. Clin Infect Dis 1998;26(3):742-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monso E, Garcia-Aymerich J, Soler N, et al. Bacterial infection in exacerbated COPD with changes in sputum characteristics. Epidemiol Infect 2003;131(1):799-804
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Miyashita N, Shimizu H, Ouchi K, et al. Assessment of the usefulness of sputum Gram stain and culture for diagnosis of community-acquired pneumonia requiring hospitalization. Med Sci Monit 2008;14(4):Cr171-6
   Google Scholar
• Aydemir O, Aydemir Y, Ozdemir M. The role of multiplex PCR test in identification of bacterial pathogens in lower respiratory tract infections. Pak J Med Sci 2014;30(5):1011-16
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mengelle C, Mansuy JM, Pierre A, et al. The use of a multiplex real-time PCR assay for diagnosing acute respiratory viral infections in children attending an emergency unit. J Clin Virol 2014. [Epub ahead of print]
   Google Scholar
• Murdoch DR. Nucleic acid amplification tests for the diagnosis of pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis 2003;36(9):1162-70
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Niederman MS. Biological markers to determine eligibility in trials for community-acquired pneumonia: a focus on procalcitonin. Clin Infect Dis 2008;47(Suppl 3):S127-32
   Google Scholar
• Ahn S, Kim WY, Kim SH, et al. Role of procalcitonin and C-reactive protein in differentiation of mixed bacterial infection from 2009 H1N1 viral pneumonia. Influenza Other Respir Viruses 2011;5(6):398-403
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maruna P, Nedelnikova K, Gurlich R. Physiology and genetics of procalcitonin. Physiol Res 2000;49(Suppl 1):S57-61
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu MH, Lin CC, Huang SL, et al. Can procalcitonin tests aid in identifying bacterial infections associated with influenza pneumonia? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Influenza Other Respir Viruses 2013;7(3):349-55
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Franquet T. Imaging of pulmonary viral pneumonia. Radiology 2011;260(1):18-39
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller WTJr, Mickus TJ, Barbosa EJr, et al. CT of viral lower respiratory tract infections in adults: comparison among viral organisms and between viral and bacterial infections. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2011;197(5):1088-95
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Harper SA, Bradley JS, Englund JA, et al. Seasonal influenza in adults and children--diagnosis, treatment, chemoprophylaxis, and institutional outbreak management: clinical practice guidelines of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 2009;48(8):1003-32
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGeer A, Green KA, Plevneshi A, et al. Antiviral therapy and outcomes of influenza requiring hospitalization in Ontario, Canada. Clin Infect Dis 2007;45(12):1568-75
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee N, Choi KW, Chan PK, et al. Outcomes of adults hospitalised with severe influenza. Thorax 2010;65(6):510-15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peltola VT, Murti KG, McCullers JA. Influenza virus neuraminidase contributes to secondary bacterial pneumonia. J Infect Dis 2005;192(2):249-57
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaiser L, Wat C, Mills T, et al. Impact of oseltamivir treatment on influenza-related lower respiratory tract complications and hospitalizations. Arch Intern Med 2003;163(14):1667-72
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hernan MA, Lipsitch M. Oseltamivir and risk of lower respiratory tract complications in patients with flu symptoms: a meta-analysis of eleven randomized clinical trials. Clin Infect Dis 2011;53(3):277-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jefferson T, Jones M, Doshi P, Del Mar C. Neuraminidase inhibitors for preventing and treating influenza in healthy adults: systematic review and meta-analysis. Bmj 2009;339:b5106
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Godlee F, Clarke M. Why don’t we have all the evidence on oseltamivir? BMJ 2009;339:b5351
   Google Scholar
• Jefferson T, Doshi P, Thompson M, Heneghan C; Cochrane Acute Respiratory Infections Group. Ensuring safe and effective drugs: who can do what it takes? Bmj 2011;342:c7258
   Google Scholar
• Shun-Shin M, Thompson M, Heneghan C, et al. Neuraminidase inhibitors for treatment and prophylaxis of influenza in children: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Bmj 2009;339:b3172
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jefferson T, Jones MA, Doshi P, et al. Neuraminidase inhibitors for preventing and treating influenza in healthy adults and children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014;4:CD008965
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tanaka A, Nakamura S, Seki M, et al. The effect of intravenous peramivir, compared with oral oseltamivir, on the outcome of post-influenza pneumococcal pneumonia in mice. Antivir Ther 2014; Epub ahead of print
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• British Infection Society; British Thoracic Society; Health Protection Agency. Pandemic flu: clinical management of patients with an influenza-like illness during an influenza pandemic. Provisional guidelines from the British Infection Society, British Thoracic Society, and Health Protection Agency in collaboration with the Department of Health. Thorax 2007;62(Suppl 1):1-46
   Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Bacterial coinfections in lung tissue specimens from fatal cases of 2009 pandemic influenza A (H1N1) - United States, May-August 2009. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2009;58(38):1071-4
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Infectious Diseases Society of America Influenza H1N1. Frontline Questions and Expert Opinion Answers
   Google Scholar
• Ng HH, Narasaraju T, Phoon MC, et al. Doxycycline treatment attenuates acute lung injury in mice infected with virulent influenza H3N2 virus: involvement of matrix metalloproteinases. Exp Mol Pathol 2012;92(3):287-95
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sugamata R, Sugawara A, Nagao T, et al. Leucomycin A, a 16-membered macrolide antibiotic, inhibits influenza A virus infection and disease progression. J Antibiot 2014;67(3):213-22
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Martin-Loeches I, Bermejo-Martin JF, et al. Macrolide-based regimens in absence of bacterial co-infection in critically ill H1N1 patients with primary viral pneumonia. Intensive Care Med 2013;39(4):693-702
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Breslow-Deckman JM, Mattingly CM, Birket SE, et al. Linezolid decreases susceptibility to secondary bacterial pneumonia postinfluenza infection in mice through its effects on IFN-gamma. J Immunol 2013;191(4):1792-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karlstrom A, Boyd KL, English BK, McCullers JA. Treatment with protein synthesis inhibitors improves outcomes of secondary bacterial pneumonia after influenza. J Infect Dis 2009;199(3):311-19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu X, He Y, Xiao K, et al. Effect of linezolid on clinical severity and pulmonary cytokines in a murine model of influenza A and Staphylococcus aureus coinfection. PLoS One 2013;8(3):e57483
   Google Scholar
• Sato K, Suga M, Akaike T, et al. Therapeutic effect of erythromycin on influenza virus-induced lung injury in mice. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998;157(3 Pt 1):853-7
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wunderink RG, Niederman MS, Kollef MH, et al. Linezolid in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus nosocomial pneumonia: a randomized, controlled study. Clin Infect Dis 2012;54(5):621-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghoneim HE, McCullers JA. Adjunctive corticosteroid therapy improves lung immunopathology and survival during severe secondary pneumococcal pneumonia in mice. J Infect Dis 2013;209(9):1459-68
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Damjanovic D, Lai R, Jeyanathan M, et al. Marked improvement of severe lung immunopathology by influenza-associated pneumococcal superinfection requires the control of both bacterial replication and host immune responses. Am J Pathol 2013;183(3):868-80
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brun-Buisson C, Richard JC, Mercat A, et al. Early corticosteroids in severe influenza A/H1N1 pneumonia and acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2011;183(9):1200-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin-Loeches I, Lisboa T, Rhodes A, et al. Use of early corticosteroid therapy on ICU admission in patients affected by severe pandemic (H1N1)v influenza A infection. Intensive Care Med 2011;37(2):272-83
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quispe-Laime AM, Bracco JD, Barberio PA, et al. H1N1 influenza A virus-associated acute lung injury: response to combination oseltamivir and prolonged corticosteroid treatment. Intensive Care Med 2010;36(1):33-41
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schonbeck U, Libby P. Inflammation, immunity, and HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors: statins as anti-inflammatory agents? Circulation 2004;109(21 Suppl 1):Ii18-26
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vandermeer ML, Thomas AR, Kamimoto L, et al. Association between use of statins and mortality among patients hospitalized with laboratory-confirmed influenza virus infections: a multistate study. J Infect Dis 2012;205(1):13-19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mortensen EM, Restrepo MI, Anzueto A, Pugh J. The effect of prior statin use on 30-day mortality for patients hospitalized with community-acquired pneumonia. Respir Res 2005;6(1):82
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mehrbod P, Hair-Bejo M, Tengku Ibrahim TA, et al. Simvastatin modulates cellular components in influenza A virus-infected cells. Int J Mol Med 2014;34(1):61-73
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peng J, Zhang D, Ma Y, et al. Protective effect of fluvastatin on influenza virus infection. Mol Med Rep 2014;9(6):2221-6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Osterholm MT, Kelley NS, Sommer A, Belongia EA. Efficacy and effectiveness of influenza vaccines: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis 2012;12(1):36-44
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Okamoto S, Kawabata S, Fujitaka H, et al. Vaccination with formalin-inactivated influenza vaccine protects mice against lethal influenza Streptococcus pyogenes superinfection. Vaccine 2004;22(21-22):2887-93
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mina MJ, Klugman KP, McCullers JA. Live attenuated influenza vaccine, but not pneumococcal conjugate vaccine, protects against increased density and duration of pneumococcal carriage after influenza infection in pneumococcal colonized mice. J Infect Dis 2013;208(8):1281-5
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chaussee MS, Sandbulte HR, Schuneman MJ, et al. Inactivated and live, attenuated influenza vaccines protect mice against influenza: Streptococcus pyogenes super-infections. Vaccine 2011;29(21):3773-81
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mina MJ, McCullers JA, Klugman KP. Live attenuated influenza vaccine enhances colonization of streptococcus pneumoniae and staphylococcus aureus in mice. mBio 2014;5:1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prevention CfDCa. Use of 13-Valent Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine and 23-Valent Pneumococcal Polysaccharide Vaccine Among Adults Aged ≥65 Years: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2014;63:822-5
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jackson LA, Gurtman A, van Cleeff M, et al. Immunogenicity and safety of a 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine compared to a 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine in pneumococcal vaccine-naive adults. Vaccine 2013;31(35):3577-84
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jackson LA, Gurtman A, Rice K, et al. Immunogenicity and safety of a 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine in adults 70 years of age and older previously vaccinated with 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine. Vaccine 2013;31(35):3585-93
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGarry LJ, Gilmore KE, Rubin JL, et al. Impact of 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV13) in a pandemic similar to the 2009 H1N1 in the United States. BMC infect Dis 2013;13:229
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dominguez A, Castilla J, Godoy P, et al. Effectiveness of vaccination with 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine in preventing hospitalization with laboratory confirmed influenza during the 2009-2010 and 2010-2011 seasons. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2013;9(4):865-73
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dominguez A, Castilla J, Godoy P, et al. Benefit of conjugate pneumococcal vaccination in preventing influenza hospitalization in children: a case-control study. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2013;32(4):330-4
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nichol KL. The additive benefits of influenza and pneumococcal vaccinations during influenza seasons among elderly persons with chronic lung disease. Vaccine 1999;17(Suppl 1):S91-3
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• PHAC. Available from: http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/nois-sinp/guide/ac-sa-eng.php
   Google Scholar
• Macintyre CR, Wang Q, Rahman B, et al. Efficacy of face masks and respirators in preventing upper respiratory tract bacterial colonization and co-infection in hospital healthcare workers. Preventive medicine 2014;62C:1-7
   Google Scholar
• Gupta RK, George R, Nguyen-Van-Tam JS. Bacterial pneumonia and pandemic influenza planning. Emerg Infect Dis 2008;14(8):1187-92
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wolter N, Tempia S, Cohen C, et al. High nasopharyngeal pneumococcal density, increased by viral coinfection, is associated with invasive pneumococcal pneumonia. J Infect Dis 2014;210(10):1649-57
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolter N, Cohen C, Tempia S, et al. HIV and influenza virus infections are associated with increased blood pneumococcal load: a prospective, hospital-based observational study in South Africa, 2009-2011. J Infect Dis 2014;209(1):56-65
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Barlow GD, Council B. Swine flu and antibiotics. J Antimicrob Chemother 2009;64(5):889-94
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Handel AJr., Longini IMAntia R. Intervention strategies for an influenza pandemic taking into account secondary bacterial infections. Epidemics 2009;1(3):185-95
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lamb FH, Brannin EB. The epidemic respiratory infection at Camp Cody, N.M. JAMA 1919;72(15):1056-62
   Google Scholar
• Lowen AC, Mubareka S, Tumpey TM, et al. The guinea pig as a transmission model for human influenza viruses. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006;103(26):9988-92
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolf AI, Strauman MC, Mozdzanowska K, et al. Pneumolysin expression by streptococcus pneumoniae protects colonized mice from influenza virus-induced disease. Virology 2014;462:463:254-65
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• CDC. 2007 guideline for isolation precautions: preventing transmission of infectious agents in healthcare settings. Available from: www.cdc.gov/hicpac/2007IP/2007isolationPrecautions.html
   Google Scholar
• PHAC. Guidance: infection prevention and control measures for healthcare workers in acute care and long-term care settings. Available from: http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/nois-sinp/guide/ac-sa-eng.php
   Google Scholar