References
- Papers of special note have been highlighted as:
- • of interest
- •• of considerable interest
- Lübbert C, Weis S. [Drug therapy of infectious diarrhea. Part 1: infectious diarrhea]. Internist. 2013;54:1383–1392.
- World Health Organization (WHO). Diarrhoeal disease. Fact Sheet No. 330, 2013 Apr [cited 2015 Sep 30]. Available from: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs330/en/.
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• Comprehensive review on all aspects of acute infectious diarrhoea in immunocompetent adults focusing on North American experience.
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•• Current Cochrane analysis on the antimicrobial treatment of symptomatic non-typhoidal Salmonella infections.
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• Comprehensive review on all aspects of the guideline-based treatment of CDI focusing on Europe.
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• Comprehensive review on the treatment of acute infectious diarrhea and the chemoprophylaxis of TD with rifaximin.
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- European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC). Prevention of norovirus infection in schools and childcare facilities. Stockholm: ECDC; 2013 [cited 2015 Oct 10]. Available from http://ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications/Publications/norovirus-prevention-infection-schools-childcare-facilities.pdf
- Krones E, Högenauer C. Diarrhea in the immunocompromised patient. Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 2012;41:677–701.
- Steffen R, Hill DR, DuPont HL. Traveler’s diarrhea: a clinical review. JAMA. 2015;313:71–80.
•• Crisp and comprehensive review on all aspects of TD.
- Shlim DR. Looking for evidence that personal hygiene precautions prevent traveler’s diarrhea. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41(Suppl. 8):S531–535.
- Baird-Parker AC. Foodborne salmonellosis. Lancet. 1990;336:1231–1235.
- European Food Safety Authority, European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. The European Union Summary Report on antimicrobial resistance in zoonotic and indicator bacteria from humans, animals and food in 2011. EFSA J. 2013;11:3196–3555.
- Day MR, Meunier D, Doumith M, et al. Carbapenemase-producing Salmonella enterica isolates in the UK. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2015;70:2165–2167.
- Christopher PR, David KV, John SM, et al. Antibiotic therapy for Shigella dysentery. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010;8:CD006784.
• Cochrane analysis on the antimicrobial treatment of Shigella infections.
- Kosek M, Yori PP, Olortegui MP. Shigellosis update: advancing antibiotic resistance, investment empowered vaccine development, and green bananas. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2010;23:475–480.
- Taneja N. Changing epidemiology of shigellosis and emergence of ciprofloxacin-resistant Shigellae in India. J Clin Microbiol. 2007;45:678–679.
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- Lehtopolku M, Kotilainen P, Haanpera-Heikkinen M, et al. Ribosomal mutations as the main cause of macrolide resistance in Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2011;55:5939–5941.
- Buchholz U, Bernard H, Werber D, et al. German outbreak of Escherichia coli O104:H4 associated with sprouts. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:1763–1770.
•• Comprehensive portrayal of the greatest outbreak yet of Shiga toxin-producing enteroaggregative Escherichia coli (STEC O104:H4) in the world in Germany in 2011.
- Nitschke M, Sayk F, Hartel C, et al. Association between azithromycin therapy and duration of bacterial shedding among patients with Shiga toxin-producing enteroaggregative Escherichia coli O104:H4. JAMA. 2012;307:1046–1052.
• Single center study investigating the STEC carrier prevalence after azithromycin therapy after the STEC O104:H4 outbreak in Germany in 2011.
- Cover TL, Aber RC. Yersinia enterocolitica. N Engl J Med. 1989;321:16–24.
- Aboutaleb N, Kuijper EK, Van Dissel JT. Emerging infectious colitis. Curr Opin Gastroenterol. 2014;30:106–115.
- Hof H. An update on the medical management of listeriosis. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2004;5:1727–1735.
- Yde M, Naranjo M, Mattheus W, et al. Usefulness of the European Epidemic Intelligence Information System in the management of an outbreak of listeriosis, Belgium, 2011. Euro Surveill. 2012;17:20279.
- Harris JB, Larocque RC, Qadri F, et al. Cholera. Lancet. 2012;379:2466–2476.
- Leibovici-Weissman Y, Neuberger A, Bitterman R, et al. Antimicrobial drugs for treating cholera. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;6:CD008625.
- Lessa FC, Mu Y, Bamberg WM, et al. Burden of Clostridium difficile infection in the United States. N Engl J Med. 2015;372:825–834.
• Comprehensive review of the massive burden of CDI in the United States
- Hensgens MP, Goorhuis A, Dekkers OM, et al. Time interval of increased risk for Clostridium difficile infection after exposure to antibiotics. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2011;67:742–748.
- Surawicz CM, Brandt LJ, Binion DG, et al. Guidelines for diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of Clostridium difficile infections. Am J Gastroenterol. 2013;108:478–498.
• Comprehensive review on all aspects of the guideline-based diagnosis and treatment of CDI focusing on the United States.
- Bauer MP, Kuijper EJ, Van Dissel JT, et al. European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID): treatment guidance document for Clostridium difficile infection (CDI). Clin Microbiol Infect. 2009;15:1067–1079.
- Debast SB, Bauer MP, Kuijper EJ, et al. European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases: update of the treatment guidance document for Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2014;20(Suppl. 2):1–26.
•• Current ESCMID guideline on the treatment of CDI in Europe.
- Zar FA, Bakkanagari SR, Moorthi KM, et al. A comparison of vancomycin and metronidazole for the treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea, stratified by disease severity. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45:302–307.
- Weis S, John E, Lippmann N, et al. [Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) in the course of time - an issue only for the internist?]. Zentralbl Chir. 2014;139:460–468.
- Pillai A, Nelson R. Probiotics for treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated colitis in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008;1:CD004611.
• Cochrane analysis on the treatment of Clostridium difficile infections with probiotics.
- Johnston BC, Ma SS, Goldenberg JZ, et al. Probiotics for the prevention of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 2013;157:878–888.
- Allen SJ, Wareham K, Wang D, et al. Lactobacilli and bifidobacteria in the prevention of antibiotic-associated diarrhoea and Clostridium difficile diarrhoea in older inpatients (PLACIDE): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicentre trial. Lancet. 2013;382:1249–1257.
•• Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled multi-center study describing the treatment of AAD and CDI with probiotics; the authors state clearly that there is no evidence that a multistrain preparation of lactobacilli and bifidobacteria was effective in the prevention of AAD or CDI.
- Wagner M, Lavoie L, Goetghebeur M. Clinical and economic consequences of vancomycin and fidaxomicin for the treatment of Clostridium difficile infection in Canada. Can J Inf Dis Med Microbiol. 2014;25:87–94.
- Louie TJ, Miller MA, Mullane KM, et al. Fidaxomicin versus vancomycin for Clostridium difficile infection. N Engl J Med. 2011;364:422–431.
- Van Nood E, Vrieze A, Nieuwdorp M, et al. Duodenal infusion of donor feces for recurrent Clostridium difficile. N Engl J Med. 2013;368:407–415.
•• This paper describes the only available randomised-controlled study yet describing that FMT is significantly more effective for the treatment of recurrent CDI than the use of vancomycin.
- Petrof EO, Khoruts A. From stool transplants to next generation microbiota therapeutics. Gastroenterology. 2014;146:1573–1582.
- Youngster I, Russell GH, Pindar C, et al. Oral, capsulized, frozen fecal microbiota transplantation for relapsing Clostridium difficile infection. JAMA. 2014;312: 1772–1778.
• This paper describes an open-label, single-group, pioneer study investigating the success rates of resolution of diarrhea following administration of FMT using frozen encapsulated inoculum from unrelated donors for recurrent CDI.
- Mattila E, Arkkila P, Mattila PS, et al. Rifaximin in the treatment of recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2013;37:122–128.
- Herpers BL, Vlaminckx B, Burkhardt O, et al. Intravenous tigecycline as adjunctive or alternative therapy for severe refractory Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;48:1732–1735.
- Lowy I, Molrine DC, Leav BA, et al. Treatment with monoclonal antibodies against Clostridium difficile toxins. N Engl J Med. 2010;362:197–205.
- Sandhu DK, Surawicz C. Update on chronic diarrhea: a run-through for the clinician. Curr Gastroenterol Rep. 2012;14:421–427.
- Lübbert C, Weis S. [Drug therapy of infectious diarrhea. Part 2: chronic diarrhea]. Internist. 2013;54:1513–1519.
- Chen XM, Keithly JS, Paya CV, et al. Cryptosporidiosis. N Engl J Med. 2002;346:1723–1731.
- Abubakar I, Aliyu SH, Arumugam C, et al. Prevention and treatment of cryptosporidiosis in immunocompromised patients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007;1:CD004932.
- MacArthur RD, Dupont HL. Etiology and pharmacologic management of noninfectious diarrhea in HIV-infected individuals in the highly active antiretroviral therapy era. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;55:860–867.
- Feasey NA, Healey P, Gordon MA. Review article: the aetiology, investigation and management of diarrhoea in the HIV-positive patient. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2011;34:587–603.
- Tejman-Yarden N, Eckmann L. New approaches to the treatment of giardiasis. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2011;24:451–456.
- Wright SG. Protozoan infections of the gastrointestinal tract. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2012;26:323–339.
- Lalle M. Giardiasis in the post genomic era: treatment, drug resistance and novel therapeutic perspectives. Infect Disord Drug Targets. 2010;10:283–294.
- Granados CE, Reveiz L, Uribe LG, et al. Drugs for treating giardiasis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;12:CD007787.
• Current Cochrane analysis on the antimicrobial treatment of giardiasis.
- Solaymani-Mohammadi S, Genkinger JM, Loffredo CA, et al. A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of albendazole compared with metronidazole as treatments for infections with Giardia duodenalis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2010;4:e682.
- Ross AP, Olds GR, Cripps AW, et al. Enteropathogens and chronic illness in returning travelers. N Engl J Med. 2013;368:1817–1825.
• Comprehensive review on all aspects of travel-associated illnesses causing chronic diarrhoea
- Stanley SL Jr. Amoebiasis. Lancet. 2003;361:1025–1034.
- Haque R, Huston CD, Hughes M, et al. Amebiasis. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:1565–1573.
- Hodges K, Gill R. Infectious diarrhea: cellular and molecular mechanisms. Gut Microbes. 2011;1:4–21.
- Ralston KS, Petri WA Jr. Tissue destruction and invasion by Entamoeba histolytica. Trends Parasitol. 2011;27:254–263.
- Adachi JA, Ericsson CD, Jiang ZD, et al. Azithromycin found to be comparable to levofloxacin for the treatment of US travelers with acute diarrhea acquired in Mexico. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;37:1165–1171.
- Kantele A, Lääveri T, Mero S, et al. Antimicrobials increase travelers’ risk of colonization by extended-spectrum beta-lactamase producing Enterobacteriaceae. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;60:837–846.