Therapeutic strategies for human microsporidia infections

References

• Vossbrinck CR, Maddox JV, Friedman S, Debrunner-Vossbrinck BA, Woese CR. Ribosomal RNA sequence suggests microsporidia are extremely ancient eukaryotes. Nature 326, 411–414 (1987).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edlind TD, Li J, Visvesvara GS, Vodkin MH, McLaughlin GL, Katiyar SK. Phylogenetic analysis of β-tubulin sequences from amitochondrial protozoa. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 5, 359–367 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cavalier-Smith T. A revised six-kingdom system of life. Biol. Rev. Camb. Philos. Soc. 73, 203–266 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiss LM, Vossbrinck CR. Molecular biology, molecular phylogeny, and molecular diagnostic approaches to the microsporidia. In: The Microsporidia and Microsporidiosis. Wittner M, Weiss LM (Eds), American Society for Microbiology, WA, USA, 129–171 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Weiss LM, Edlind TD, Vossbrinck CR, Hashimoto T. Microsporidian molecular phylogeny: the fungal connection. J. Eukaryot. Microbiol. 46, 17S–18S (1999).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vossbrinck CR, Andreadis TG, Weiss LM. Phylogenetics: taxonomy and the microsporidia as derived fungi. In: Opportunistic Infections: Toxoplasma, Sarcocystis, and Microsporidia. Lindsay DS, Weiss LM (Eds), Kluwer Academic Publishers, NA, USA, 189–213 (2004).
   Google Scholar
• Wittner M. Historic perspective on the microsporidia: expanding horizons. In: The Microsporidia and Microsporidiosis. Wittner M, Weiss LM (Eds), American Society for Microbiology, WA, USA, 1–6 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Desportes I, Le Charpentier Y, Galian A et al. Occurrence of a new microsporidan: Enterocytozoon bieneusi n.g., n. sp., in the enterocytes of a human patient with AIDS. J. Protozool. 32, 250–254 (1985).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bryan RT, Schwartz DA. Epidemiology of microsporidiosis. In: The Microsporidia and Microsporidiosis. Wittner M, Weiss LM (Eds), American Society for Microbiology, WA, USA, 502–516 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Schwartz DA, Bryan RT. Microsporidial infections: progress in epidemiology and prevention. In: Emerging Infections (Volume 3). Scheld WM, Craig RM, Hughes JM (Eds), American Society for Microbiology, WA, USA, 73–98 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Deplazes P, Mathis A, Weber R. Epidemiology and zoonotic aspects of microsporidia of mammals and birds. Contrib. Microbiol. 6, 236–260 (2000).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Didier ES, Stovall ME, Green LC, Brindley PJ, Sestak K, Didier PJ. Epidemiology of microsporidiosis: sources and modes of transmission. Vet. Parasitol. 126, 145–166 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vavra J, Larsson R. Structure of the microsporidia. In: The Microsporidia and Microsporidiosis. Wittner M, Weiss LM (Eds), American Society for Microbiology, WA, USA, 7–84 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Desportes-Livage I. Biology of microsporidia. Contrib. Microbiol. 6, 140–165 (2000).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Canning EU, Vavra J. Phylum microsporidia. In: The Illustrated Guide to the Protozoa (2nd Edition). Lee JJ, Leedale GF, Bradbury PB (Eds), Society of Protozoologists, KS, USA, 39–126 (2000).
   Google Scholar
• Biderre C, Mathis A, Deplazes P, Weber R, Méténier G, Vivarès CP. Molecular karyotype diversity in the microsporidian Encephalitozoon cuniculi. Parasitology 118, 439–445 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katinka MD, Duprat S, Cornillot E et al. Genome sequence and gene compaction of the eukaryote parasite Encephalitozoon cuniculi. Nature 414, 450–453 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams BA, Hirt R, Lucocq JM, Embley TM. A mitochondrial remnant in the microsporidian Trachipleistophora hominis. Nature 418, 865–869 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slamovits CH, Fast NM, Law JS, Keeling PJ. Genome compaction and stability in microsporidian intracellular parasites. Curr. Biol. 14, 891–896 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vivarès CP, Méténier G. The microsporidia genome: living with minimal genes as an intracellular eukaryote. In: Opportunistic Infections: Toxoplasma, Sarcocystis, and Microsporidia. Lindsay DS, Weiss LM (Eds), Kluwer Academic Publishers, NA, USA, 215–242 (2004).
   Google Scholar
• Takvorian PM, Cali A. Enzyme histochemical identification of the Golgi apparatus in the microsporidian, Glugea stephani. J. Eukaryot. Microbiol. 41, 63S–64S (1994).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sokolova Y, Snigirevskaya E, Morzhina E, Skarlato S, Mironov A, Komissarchik Y. Visualization of early Golgi compartments at proliferate and sporogenic stages of a microsporidian Nosema grylli. J. Eukaryot. Microbiol. (Suppl.), 86–87 (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Weidner E, Findley A. Catalase in microsporidian spores before and during discharge. Biol. Bull. 205, 236–237 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Didier ES, Snowden KF, Shadduck JA. Biology of microsporidian species infecting mammals. Adv. Parasitol. 40, 283–320 (1988).
   Google Scholar
• Didier ES, Didier PJ, Snowden KF, Shadduck JA. Microsporidiosis in mammals. Microb. Infect. 2, 709–720 (2000).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cali A, Takvorian PM. Ultrastructure and development of Pleistophora ronneafiei n. sp., a microsporidium (Protista) in the skeletal muscle of an immune-compromised individual. J. Eukaryot. Microbiol. 50, 77–85 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keohane EM, Weiss LM. The structure, function, and composition of the microsporidian polar tube. In: The Microsporidia and Microsporidiosis. Wittner M, Weiss LM (Eds), American Society for Microbiology, WA, USA, 196–224 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Weidner E. Ultrastructural study of microsporidian invasion into cells. Z. Parasitenkd. 40, 227–242 (1972).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Undeen AH. A proposed mechanism for the germination of microspridian (Protozoa: Microspora) spores. J. Theor. Biol. 142, 223–235 (1990).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kotler DP, Orenstein JM. Clinical syndromes associated with microsporidiosis. Adv. Parasitol. 40, 321–349 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kotler DP, Orenstein JM. Clinical syndromes associated with microsporidiosis. In: The Microsporidia and Microsporidiosis. Wittner M, Weiss LM (Eds), American Society for Microbiology, WA, USA, 258–292 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Weber R, Deplazes P, Schwartz D. Diagnosis and clinical aspects of human microsporidiosis. Contrib. Microbiol. 6, 166–192 (2000).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sandfort J, Hannemann A, Gelderblom H, Stark K, Owen RL, Ruf B. Enterocytozoon bieneusi infection in an immunocompetent patient who had acute diarrhea and who was not infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Clin. Infect. Dis.19, 514–516 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thielman NM, Guerrant RL. Persistent diarrhea in the returned traveler. Infect. Dis. Clin. North Am. 12, 489–501 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Raynaud L, Delbac F, Broussolle V et al. Identification of Encephalitozoon intestinalis in travelers with chronic diarrhea by specific PCR amplification. J. Clin. Microbiol. 36, 37–40 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Okhuysen PC. Traveler’s diarrhea due to intestinal protozoa. Clin. Infect. Dis. 1, 110–114 (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Shadduck JA, Orenstein JM. Comparative pathology of microsporidiosis. Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med. 117, 1215–1219 (1993).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Snowden KF, Didier ES, Orenstein JM, Shadduck JA. Animal models of human microsporidial infections. Lab. Anim. Sci. 48, 589–592 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Van Gool T, Vetter JC, Weinmayr B, Van Dam A, Derouin F, Dankert J. High seroprevalence of Encephalitozoon species in immunocompetent subjects. J. Infect. Dis. 175, 1020–1024 (1997).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cislakova L, Prokopcakova H, Stef’kovic M, Halanova M. Encephalitozoon cuniculi – clinical and epidemiologic significance. Results of a preliminary serologic study in humans. Epidemiol. Mikrobiol. Imunol. 46, 30–33 (1997).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Visvesvara GS, Belloso M, Moura H et al. Isolation of Nosema algerae from the cornea of an immunocompetent patient. J. Eukaryot. Microbiol. 46, 10S (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Coyle CM, Weiss LM, Rhodes LV III et al. Fatal myositis due to the microsporidian Brachiola algerae, a mosquito pathogen. N. Engl. J. Med. 351, 42–47 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Margileth AM, Strano AJ, Chandra R, Neafie R, Blum M, McCully RM. Disseminated nosematosis in an immunologically compromised infant. Arch. Pathol. 95, 145–150 (1973).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cali A, Takvorian PM, Lewin S et al. Brachiola vesicularum, n. g., n. sp., a new microsporidium associated with AIDS and myositis. J. Eukaryot. Microbiol. 45, 240–251 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pinnolis M, Egbert PR, Font RL, Winter FC. Nosematosis of the cornea. Case report, including electron microscopic studies. Arch. Ophthalmol. 99, 1044–1047 (1981).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ashton N, Wirasinha PA. Encephalitozoonosis (nosematosis) of the cornea. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 57, 669–674 (1973).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Canning EU, Lom J. The Microsporidia of Vertebrates. Academic Press, NY, USA, 1–289 (1986).
   Google Scholar
• Bryan R, Cali A, Owen R, Spencer H. Microsporidia: newly recognized opportunistic pathogens in patients with AIDS. In: Progress in Clinical Parasitology Sun T (Ed.), WW Norton and Co., Publishers, NY, USA, 1–26 (1990).
   Google Scholar
• Cali A, Meisler DM, Lowder CY et al. Corneal microsporidioses: characterization and identification. J. Protozool. 38, 215S–217S (1991).
   Google Scholar
• Ledford DK, Overman MD, Gonzalvo A, Cali A, Mester SW, Lockey RF. Microsporidiosis myositis in a patient with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Ann. Intern. Med. 102, 628–630 (1985).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cali A, Takvorian PM. Ultrastructure and development of Pleistophora ronneafiei n. sp., a microsporidium (Protista) in the skeletal muscle of an immune-compromised individual. J. Eukaryot. Microbiol. 50, 77–85 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yachnis AT, Berg J, Martinez-Salazar A et al. Disseminated microsporidiosis especially infecting the brain, heart, and kidneys. Report of a newly recognized pansporoblastic species in two symptomatic AIDS patients. Am. J. Clin. Pathol. 106, 535–543 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vavra J, Yachnis AT, Shadduck JA, Orenstein JM. Microsporidia of the genus Trachipleistophora – causative agents of human microsporidiosis: description of Trachipleistophora anthropophthera n. sp. (Protozoa: Microsporidia). J. Eukaryot. Microbiol. 45, 273–283 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Juarez SI, Ichinose A, Jongwutiwes S, Yanagi T, Kanbara H. A species of microsporidium isolated from an HIV-infected patient and identified as Trachipleistophora anthropophthera by transmission electron microscopy. J. Eukaryot. Microbiol. 50(S), 576 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Field AS, Marriott DJ, Milliken ST et al. Myositis associated with a newly described microsporidian, Trachipleistophora hominis, in a patient with AIDS. J. Clin. Microbiol. 34, 2803–2811 (1996).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hollister WS, Canning EU, Weidner E, Field AS, Kench J, Marriott DJ. Development and ultrastructure of Trachipleistophora hominis n.g., n.sp. after in vitro isolation from an AIDS patient and inoculation into athymic mice. Parasitology 112, 143–154 (1996).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rauz S, Tuft S, Dart JK, Bonshek R, Luthert P, Curry A. Ultrastructural examination of two cases of stromal microsporidial keratitis. J. Med. Microbiol. 53, 775–781 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Davis RM, Font RL, Keisler MS, Shadduck JA. Corneal microsporidiosis. A case report including ultrastructural observations. Ophthalmology 97, 953–957 (1990).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shadduck JA, Meccoli RA, Davis R, Font RL. Isolation of a microsporidian from a human patient. J. Infect. Dis. 162, 773–776 (1990).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Silveira H, Canning EU. Vittaforma corneae n. comb. for the human microsporidium Nosema corneum Shadduck, Meccoli, Davis & Font, 1990, based on its ultrastructure in the liver of experimentally infected athymic mice. J. Eukaryot. Microbiol. 42, 158–165 (1995).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Deplazes P, Mathis A, van Saanen M et al. Dual microsporidial infection due to Vittaforma corneae and Encephalitozoon hellem in a patient with AIDS. Clin Infect Dis. 27, 1521–1524 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Orenstein JM, Gaetz HP, Yachnis AT, Frankel SS, Mertens RB, Didier ES. Disseminated microsporidiosis in AIDS: are any organs spared? AIDS 11, 385–386 (1997).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Orenstein JM, Chiang J, Steinberg W, Smith PD, Rotterdam H, Kotler DP. Intestinal microsporidiosis as a cause of diarrhea in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients: a report of 20 cases. Hum. Pathol. 21, 475–481 (1990).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Orenstein JM, Tenner M, Cali A, Kotler DP. A microsporidian previously undescribed in humans, infecting enterocytes and macrophages, and associated with diarrhea in an acquired immunodeficiency syndrome patient. Hum. Pathol. 23, 722–728 (1992).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cali A, Takvorian P. Developmental morphology and life cycles of the microsporidia. In: The Microsporidia and Microsporidiosis. Wittner M, Weiss LM (Eds), American Society for Microbiology, WA, USA, 85–128 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Garcia LS. Laboratory identification of the microsporidia. J. Clin. Microbiol. 40, 1892–1901 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fedorko DP, Hijazi YM. Application of molecular techniques to the diagnosis of microsporidial infection. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2, 183–191 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franzen C, Müller A. Molecular techniques for detection, species differentiation, and phylogenetic analysis of microsporidia. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 12, 243–285 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiss LM. Molecular phylogeny and diagnostic approaches to microsporidia. Contrib. Microbiol. 6, 209–235 (2000).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dowd SE, Gerba CP, Enriquez FJ, Pepper IL. PCR amplification and species determination of microsporidia in formalin-fixed feces after immunomagnetic separation. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64, 333–336 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Orlandi PA, Lampel KA. Extraction-free, filter-based template preparation for rapid and sensitive PCR detection of pathogenic parasitic protozoa. J. Clin. Microbiol. 38, 2271–2277 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carnevale S, Velásquez JN, Labbé JH et al. Diagnosis of Enterocytozoon bieneusi by PCR in stool samples eluted from filter paper disks. Clin. Diag. Lab. Immunol. 7, 504–506 (2000).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sorel N, Guillot E, Thellier M et al. Development of an immunomagnetic separation – polymerase chain reaction (IMS-PCR) assay specific for Enterocytozoon bieneusi in water samples. J. Appl. Microbiol. 94, 273–279 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Subrungruang I, Mungthin M, Chavalitshewinkoon-Petmitr P, Ransin R, Naaglor T, Leelayoova S. Evaluation of DNA extraction and PCR methods for detection of Enterocytozoon bieneusi in stool specimens. J. Clin. Microbiol. 42, 3490–3494 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh M, Kane GJ, Mackinlay L et al. Detection of antibodies to Nosema cuniculi (Protozoa: Microscoporidia) in human and animal sera by the indirect fluorescent antibody technique. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health 13, 110–113 (1982).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bergquist R, Morfeldt-Mansson L, Pehrson PO, Petrini B, Wasserman J. Antibody against Encephalitozoon cuniculi in Swedish homosexual men. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 16, 389–391 (1984).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hollister WS, Canning EU, Willcox A. Evidence for widespread occurrence of antibodies to Encephalitozoon cuniculi (Microspora) in man provided by ELISA and other serological tests. Parasitology 102(Pt 1), 33–43 (1991).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Van Gool T, Biderre C, Delbac F, Wentink-Bonnema E, Peek R, Vivares CP. Serodiagnostic studies in an immunocompetent individual infected with Encephalitozoon cuniculi. J. Infect. Dis. 189, 2243–2249 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kucerova-Pospisilova Z, Ditrich O. The serological surveillance of several groups of patients using antigens of Encephalitozoon hellem and E. cuniculi antibodies to microsporidia in patients. Folia Parasitol. (Praha) 45, 108–112 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kucerova-Pospisilova Z, Secor WE, Moura H et al. An ELISA test to detect human serum antibodies reactive with Encephalitozoon intestinalis. J. Eukaryot. Microbiol. (Suppl.), 73–74 (2001).
   Google Scholar
• del Aguila C, Rueda C, De la Camara C, Fenoy S. Seroprevalence of anti-Encephalitozoon antibodies in Spanish immunocompetent subjects. J. Eukaryot. Microbiol. (Suppl.), 75–78 (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Curry A, Smith HV. Emerging pathogens: isospora, cyclospora and microsporidia. Parasitology 117(Suppl.), 143–159 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• Seitz HM, Trammer T. Opportunistic infections caused by protozoan parasites. Tokai J. Exp. Clin. Med. 23, 249–257 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shadduck JA, Pakes SP. Encephalitozoonosis (nosematosis) and toxoplasmosis. Am. J. Pathol. 64, 657–671 (1971).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lopez-Velez R, Turrientes MC, Garron C et al. Microsporidiosis in travelers with diarrhea from the tropics. J. Travel Med. 6, 223–237 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Müller A, Bialek R, Kamper A, Fatkenheuer G, Salzberger B, Franzen C. Detection of microsporidia in travelers with diarrhea. J. Clin. Microbiol. 39, 1630–2632 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Valperga SM, de Jogna Prat SA, de Valperga GJ et al. Microsporidian spores in the stool specimens of toddlers, with or without diarrhea, from Tucuman, Argentina. Rev. Argent. Microbiol. 31, 157–164 (1999).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chokephaibulkit K, Wanachiwanawin D, Tosasuk K, Pavitpok J, Vanprapar N, Chearskul S. Intestinal parasitic infections among human immunodeficiency virus-infected and -uninfected children hospitalized with diarrhea in Bangkok, Thailand. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health 32, 770–775 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mungthin M, Suwannasaeng R, Naaglor T, Areekul W, Leelayoova S. Asymptomatic intestinal microsporidiosis in Thai orphans and child-care workers. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 95, 304–306 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tumwine JK, Kekitiinwa A, Nabukeera N, Akiyoshi, DE, Buckholt MA, Tzipori S. Enterocytozoon bieneusi among children with diarrhea attending Mulago Hospital in Uganda. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 67, 299–303 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wanachiwanawin D, Chokephaibulkit K, Lertlaituan P, Ongrotchanakun J, Chinabut P, Thakerngpol K. Intestinal microsporidiosis in HIV-infected children with diarrhea. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health 33, 241–245 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lores B, Lopez-Miragaya I, Arias C, Fenoy S, Torres J, del Aguila C. Intestinal microsporidiosisdue to Enterocytozoon bieneusi in elderly human immunodeficiency virus-negative patients from Vigo, Spain. Clin. Infect. Dis. 34, 918–921 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Birthistle K, Moore P, Hay P. Microsporidia: a new sexually transmissable cause of urethritis. Genitourin. Med. 72, 445 (1996).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hutin YJ, Sombardier MN, Liguory O et al. Risk factors for intestinal microsporidiosis in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection: a case-control study. J. Infect. Dis. 178, 904–907 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dascomb K, Frazer T, Clark RA, Kissinger P, Didier ES. Microsporidiosis and HIV. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 24, 290–292 (2000).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Didier ES. Microsporidiosis: an emerging and opportunistic infection in humans and animals. Acta Trop. (2005)(In Press).
   Google Scholar
• Slifko TR, Smith HV, Rose JB. Emerging parasite zoonoses associated with water and food. Int. J. Parasitol. 30, 1379–1393 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McInnes EF, Stewart CG. The pathology of subclinical infection of Encephalitozoon cuniculi in canine dams producing pups with overt encephalitozoonosis. J. S. Afr. Vet. Assoc. 62, 51–54 (1991).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lowman PM, Takvorian PM, Cali A. The effects of elevated temperatures and various time-temperature combinations on the development of Brachiola (Nosema) algerae N. Comb. in mammalian cell culture. J. Eukaryot. Microbiol. 47, 221–234 (2000).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Avery SW, Undeen AH. The isolation of microsporidia and other pathogens from concentrated ditch water. J. Am. Mosq. Control Assoc. 3, 54–58 (1987).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sparfel JM, Sarfati C, Liguory O et al. Detection of microsporidia and identification of Enterocytozoon bieneusi in surface water by filtration followed by specific PCR. J. Eukaryot. Microbiol. 44, 78S (1997).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dowd SE, Gerba CP, Pepper IL. Confirmation of the human-pathogenic microsporidia, Enterocytozoon bieneusi, Encephalitozoon intestinalis, and Vittaforma corneae, in water. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64, 3332–3335 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fournier S, Liguory O, Santillana-Hayat M et al. Detection of microsporidia in surface water: a one-year follow-up study. FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol. 29, 95–100 (2000).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fournier S, Dubrou S, Liguory O et al. Detection of Microsporidia, Cryptosporidia and Giardia in swimming pools: a one-year prospective study. FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol. 33, 209–213 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thurston-Enriquez JA, Watt P, Dowd SE, Enriquez R, Pepper IL, Gerba CP. Detection of protozoan parasites and microsporidia in irrigation waters used for crop production. J. Food Prot. 65, 378–382 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cotte L, Rabodonirina M, Chapuis F et al. Waterborne outbreak of intestinal microsporidiosis in persons with and without human immunodeficiency virus infection. J. Infect. Dis. 180, 2003–2008 (1999).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sulaiman IM, Fayer R, Lal AA, Trout JM, Schaefer FW III, Xiao L. Molecular characterization of microsporidia indicates that wild mammals harbor host-adapted Enterocytozoon spp. as well as human-pathogenic Enterocytozoon bieneusi. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 69, 4495–4501 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franzen C, Müller A. Cryptosporidia and microsporidia – waterborne diseases in the immunocompromised host. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 34, 245–262 (1999).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Conteas CN, Berlin OG, Ash LR, Pruthi JS. Therapy for human gastrointestinal microsporidiosis. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 63, 121–127 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lacey E. Mode of action of benzimidazoles. Parasitol. Today 6, 112–115 (1990).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Blanshard C, Ellis DS, Dowell SP, Tovey G, Gazzard BG. Electron microscopic changes in Enterocytozoon bieneusi following treatment with albendazole. J. Clin. Pathol. 46, 898–902 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blanshard C, Ellis DS, Tovey DG, Dowell S, Gazzard BG. Treatment of intestinal microsporidiosis with albendazole in patients with AIDS. AIDS 6, 311–313 (1992).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dieterich DT, Lew EA, Kotler DP, Poles MA, Orenstein JM. Treatment with albendazole for intestinal disease due to Enterocytozoon bieneusi in patients with AIDS. J. Infect. Dis. 169, 178–183 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dore GJ, Marriott DJ, Hing MC, Harkness JL, Field AS. Disseminated microsporidiosis due to Septata intestinalis in nine patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus: response to therapy with albendazole. Clin Infect Dis. 21, 70–76 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sobottka I, Albrecht H, Schafer H et al. Disseminated Encephalitozoon (Septata) intestinalis infection in a patient with AIDS: novel diagnostic approaches and autopsy-confirmed parasitological cure following treatment with albendazole. J. Clin. Microbiol. 33, 2948–2952 (1995).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Joste NE, Rich JD, Busam KJ, Schwartz DA. Autopsy verification of Encephalitozoon intestinalis (microsporidiosis) eradication following albendazole therapy. Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med. 120, 199–203 (1996).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Leder K, Ryan N, Spelman D, Crowe SM. Microsporidial disease in HIV-infected patients: a report of 42 patients and review of the literature. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 30, 331–338 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Molina JM, Tourneur M, Sarfati C et al. Fumagillin treatment of intestinal microsporidiosis. N. Engl. J. Med. 346, 1963–1969 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katiyar SK, Gordon VR, McLaughlin GL, Edlind TD. Antiprotozoal activities of benzimidazoles and correlations with β-tubulin sequence. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 38, 2086–2090 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Didier ES. Effects of albendazole, fumagillin, and TNP-470 on microsporidial replication in vitro. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 41, 1541–1546 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lafranchi-Tristem NJ, Curry A, Cheney SA, Canning EU. Growth of Trachipleistophora hominis (Microsporidia: Pleistophoridae) in C2,C12 mouse myoblast cells and response to treatment with albendazole. Folia. Parasitol. (Praha) 48, 192–200 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lacey E, Gill JH. Biochemistry of benzimidazole resistance. Acta Trop. 56, 245–262 (1994).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Liu LX, Weller PF. Antiparasitic drugs. N. Engl. J. Med. 334, 1178–1184 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tremoulet AH, Avila-Aguero ML, Paris MM, Canas-Coto A, Ulloa-Gutierrez R, Faingezicht I. Albendazole therapy for Microsporidium diarrhea in immunocompetent Costa Rican children. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 23, 915–918 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shah GK, Pfister D, Probst LE, Ferrieri P, Holland E. Diagnosis of microsporidial keratitis by confocal microscopy and the chromatrope stain. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 121, 89–91 (1996).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Teruel MT, Felipe AE, Solana HD, Sallovitz JM, Lanusse CE. Placental and fetal toxicity of albendazole sulphoxide in Wistar rats. Vet. Hum. Toxicol. 45, 131–136 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Franssen FF, Lumeij JT, van Knapen F. Susceptibility of Encephalitozoon cuniculi to several drugs in vitro. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 39, 1265–1268 (1995).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Didier ES, Maddry JA, Kwong CD, Green LC, Snowden KF, Shadduck JA. Screening of compounds for antimicrosporidial activity in vitro. Folia Parasitol. (Praha) 45, 129–139 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCowen MC, Callender ME, Lawlis JF Jr. Fumagillin (H-3), a new antibiotic with amebicidal properties. Science 113, 202–203 (1951).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katznelson H, Jamieson CA. Control of nosema disease of honeybees with fumagillin. Science 115, 70–71 (1952).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Killough JH, MagillGB, Smith RC. The treatment of amebiasis with fumagillin. Science 115, 71–72 (1952).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shadduck JA. Effect of fumagillin on in vitro multiplication of Encephalitozoon cuniculi. J. Protozool. 27, 202–208 (1980).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Beauvais B, Sarfati C, Challier S, Derouin F. In vitro model to assess effect of antimicrobial agents on Encephalitozoon cuniculi. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 38, 2440–2448 (1994).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Coyle C, Kent M, Tanowitz HB, Wittner M, Weiss LM. TNP-470 is an effective antimicrosporidial agent. J. Infect. Dis. 177, 515–518 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diesenhouse MC, Wilson LA, Corrent GF, Visvesvara GS, Grossniklaus HE, Bryan RT. Treatment of microsporidial keratoconjunctivitis with topical fumagillin. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 115, 293–298 (1993).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rosberger DF, Serdarevic ON, Erlandson RA et al. Successful treatment of microsporidial keratoconjunctivitis with topical fumagillin in a patient with AIDS. Cornea 12, 261–265 (1993).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wilkins JH, Joshi N, Margolis TP, Cevallos V, Dawson CR. Microsporidial keratoconjunctivitis treated successfully with a short course of fumagillin. Eye 8, 703–704 (1994).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Garvey MJ, Ambrose PG, Ulmer JL. Topical fumagillin in the treatment of microsporidial keratoconjunctivitis in AIDS. Ann. Pharmacother. 29, 872–874 (1995).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lowder CY, McMahon JT, Meisler DM et al. Microsporidial keratoconjunctivitis caused by Septata intestinalis in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 121, 715–717 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ingber D, Fujita T, Kishimoto S et al. Synthetic analogues of fumagillin that inhibit angiogenesis and suppress tumour growth. Nature 348, 555–557 (1990).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sin N, Meng L, Wang MQ, Wen JJ, Bornmann WG, Crews CM. The anti-angiogenic agent fumagillin covalently binds and inhibits the methionine aminopeptidase, MetAP-2. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 94, 6099–6103 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Griffith EC, Su Z, Niwayama S, Ramsay CA, Chang YH, Liu JO. Molecular recognition of angiogenesis inhibitors fumagillin and ovalicin by methionine aminopeptidase 2. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 95, 15183–15188 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Liu S, Widom J, Kemp CW, Crews CM, Clardy J. Structure of human methionine aminopeptidase-2 complexed with fumagillin. Science. 282, 1324–1327 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teicher BA, Holden SA, Ara G et al. Potentiation of cytotoxic cancer therapies by TNP-470 alone and with other anti-angiogenic agents. Int. J. Cancer 57, 920–925 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turk BE, Su Z, Liu JO. Synthetic analogues of TNP-470 and ovalicin reveal a common molecular basis for inhibition of angiogenesis and immunosuppression. Bioorg. Med. Chem. 6(8), 1163–1169 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bontems F, le Floch P, Duffieux F, Biderre C, Peyret P, Lallemand JY. Homology modeling and calculation of the cobalt cluster charges of the Encephalitozoon cuniculi methionine aminopeptidase, a potential target for drug design. Biophys. Chem. 105, 29–43 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Didier ES, Martin AD, Stovall ME et al. Methionine aminopeptidase 2 expression in microsporidia. J. Eukaryot. Microbiol. 50(Suppl.), 569–571 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Weiss LM, Zhou GC, Zhang H. Characterization of recombinant microsporidian methionine aminopeptidase type 2. J. Eukaryot. Microbiol. 50(Suppl.), 597–599 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pandrea I, Mittleider D, Brindley PJ, Didier ES, Robertson DL. Phylogenetic relationships of methionine aminopeptidase type 2 among Encephalitozoon species and genotypes of microsporidia. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. (2005) (In Press).
   Google Scholar
• Benson CA, Kaplan JE, Masur H et al. Treating opportunistic infections among HIV-infected adults and adolescents. Morbid. Mortal. Weekly Rep. 53, 1–112 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pozio E, Morales MA. The impact of HIV-protease inhibitors on opportunistic parasites. Trends Parasitol. 21, 58–63 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goguel J, Katlama C, Sarfati C, Maslo C, Leport C, Molina JM. Remission of AIDS-associated intestinal microsporidiosis with highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 11, 1658–1659 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carr A, Marriott D, Field A, Vasak E, Cooper DA. Treatment of HIV-1-associated microsporidiosis and cryptosporidiosis with combination antiretroviral therapy. Lancet 351, 256–261 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foudraine NA, Weverling GJ, van Gool T et al. Improvement of chronic diarrhoea in patients with advanced HIV-1 infection during potent antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 12, 35–41 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miao YM, Awad-El-Kariem FM, Franzen C et al. Eradication of Cryptosporidia and microsporidia following successful antiretroviral therapy. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 25, 124–129 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lafaurie M, Sarfati C, Menotti J, Molina JM. Remission of disseminated infection caused by Encephalocytozoon intestinalis with highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 17, 640–641 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Conners MS, Gibler TS, Van Gelder RN. Diagnosis of microsporidia keratitis by polymerase chain reaction. Arch. Ophthalmol. 122, 283–284 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gajdatsy AD, Tay-Kearney ML. Microsporidial keratoconjunctivitis after HAART. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol. 29, 327–329 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martins SA, Muccioli C, Belfort R Jr, Castelo A. Resolution of microsporidial keratoconjunctivitis in an AIDS patient treated with highly active antiretroviral therapy. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 131, 378–379 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Anwar-Bruni DM, Hogan SE, Schwartz DA, Wilcox CM, Bryan RT, Lennox JL. Atovaquone is effective treatment for the symptoms of gastrointestinal microsporidiosis in HIV-1-infected patients. AIDS 10, 619–623 (1996).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Molina JM, Goguel J, Sarfati C et al. Potential efficacy of fumagillin in intestinal microsporidiosis due to Enterocytozoon bieneusi in patients with HIV infection: results of a drug screening study. The French Microsporidiosis Study Group. AIDS 11, 1603–1610 (1997).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kester KE, Turiansky GW, McEvoy PL. Nodular cutaneous microsporidiosis in a patient with AIDS and successful treatment with long-term oral clindamycin therapy. Ann. Intern. Med. 128, 911–914 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dionisio D, Sterrantino G, Meli M, Trotta M, Milo D, Leoncini F. Use of furazolidone for the treatment of microsporidiosis due to Enterocytozoon bieneusi in patients with AIDS. Recenti Prog. Med. 86, 394–397 (1995).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dionisio D, Manneschi LI, Di Lollo S et al. Enterocytozoon bieneusi in AIDS: symptomatic relief and parasite changes after furazolidone. J. Clin. Pathol. 50, 472–476 (1997).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dionisio D, Manneschi LI, Di Lollo S et al. Persistent damage to Enterocytozoon bieneusi, with persistent symptomatic relief, after combined furazolidone and albendazole in AIDS patients. J. Clin. Pathol. 51, 731–736 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yee RW, Tio FO, Martinez JA, Held KS, Shadduck JA, Didier ES. Resolution of microsporidial epithelial keratopathy in a patient with AIDS. Ophthalmology 98, 196–201 (1991).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Albrecht H, Stellbrink HJ, Sobottka I. Failure of itraconazole to prevent Enterocytozoon bieneusi infection. Genitourin. Med. 71, 325–326 (1995).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rossi P, Urbani C, Donelli G, Pozio E. Resolution of microsporidial sinusitis and keratoconjunctivitis by itraconazole treatment. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 127, 210–212 (1999).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sridhar MS, Sharma S. Microsporidial keratoconjunctivitis in a HIV-seronegative patient treated with debridement and oral itraconazole. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 136, 745–746 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Leitch GJ, He Q, Wallace S, Visvesvara GS. Inhibition of the spore polar filament extrusion of the microsporidium, Encephalitozoon hellem, isolated from an AIDS patient. J. Eukaryot. Microbiol. 40, 711–717 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Canning EU, Hollister WS. Enterocytozoon bieneusi (Microspora): prevalence and pathogenicity in AIDS patients. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 84, 181–186 (1990).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Eeftinck Schattenkerk JK, van Gool T, van Ketel RJ et al. Clinical significance of small-intestinal microsporidiosis in HIV-1-infected individuals. Lancet 337, 895–898 (1991).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sun T, Kaplan MH, Teichberg S, Weissman G, Smilari T, Urmacher C. Intestinal microsporidiosis. Report of five cases. Ann. Clin. Lab. Sci. 24, 521–532 (1994).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brasil P, Sodre FC, Cuzzi-Maya T, Gutierrez MC, Mattos H, Moura H. Intestinal microsporidiosis in HIV-positive patients with chronic unexplained diarrhea in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: diagnosis, clinical presentation and follow-up. Rev. Inst. Med. Trop. Sao Paulo 38, 97–102 (1996).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gumbo T, Hobbs RE, Carlyn C, Hall G, Isada CM. Microsporidia infection in transplant patients. Transplantation 67, 482–484 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• He Q, Leitch GJ, Visvesvara GS, Wallace S. Effects of nifedipine, metronidazole, and nitric oxide donors on spore germination and cell culture infection of the microsporidia Encephalitozoon hellem and Encephalitozoon intestinalis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 40, 179–185 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• White CA Jr. Nitazoxanide: a new broad spectrum antiparasitic agent. Expert Rev. Anti Infect. Ther. 2, 43–49 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bicart-See A, Massip P, Linas MD, Datry A. Successful treatment with nitazoxanide of Enterocytozoon bieneusi microsporidiosis in a patient with AIDS. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 44, 167–168 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharpstone D, Rowbottom A, Francis N et al. Thalidomide: a novel therapy for microsporidiosis. Gastroenterology 112, 1823–1829 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ridoux O, Drancourt M. Lack of in vitro antimicrosporidian activity of thalidomide. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 43, 2305–2306 (1999).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pleshinger J, Weidner E. The microsporidian spore invasion tube. IV. Discharge activation begins with pH-triggered Ca2+ influx. J. Cell. Biol. 100, 1834–1838 (1985).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bigliardi E, Bernuzzi AM, Corona S, Gatti S, Scaglia M, Sacchi L. In vitro efficacy of nikkomycin Z against the human isolate of the microsporidian species Encephalitozoon hellem. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 44, 3012–3016 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sobottka I, Bartscht K, Schafer P et al. In vitro activity of polyoxin D and nikkomycin Z against Encephalitozoon cuniculi. Parasitol. Res. 88(5), 451–453 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ben-Ziony Y, Arzi B. Updated information for treatment of fungal infections in cats and dogs. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 218, 1718 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mittleider D, Green LC, Mann VH, Michael SF, Didier ES, Brindley PJ. Genome survey sequences from the opportunistic microsporidian pathogen, Vittaforma corneae. J. Eukaryot. Microbiol. 49, 393–401 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Didier ES, Bowers L, Stovall ME et al. Antimicrosporidial activity of (fluoro)quinolones in vitro and in vivo. Folia Parasitol. 51, 1–9 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chan CM, Theng JT, Li L, Tan DT. Microsporidial keratoconjunctivitis in healthy individuals: a case series. Ophthalmology 110, 1420–1425 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bacchi CJ, Weiss LM. Chemotherapy of microsporidiosis: benzimidazoles, fumagillin, and polyamine analogues. In: Opportunistic Infections: Toxoplasma, Sarcocystis, and Microsporidia. Lindsay DS, Weiss LM (Eds), Kluwer Academic Publishers, NA, USA, 159–188 (2004).
   Google Scholar
• Bacchi CJ, Weiss LM, Lane S et al. Novel synthetic polyamines are effective in the treatment of experimental microsporidiosis, an opportunistic AIDS-associated infection. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 46, 55–61 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shadduck JA, Polley MB. Some factors influencing the in vitro infectivity and replication of Encephalitozoon cuniculi. J. Protozool. 25, 491–496 (1978).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Waller T. Sensitivity of Encephalitozoon cuniculi to various temperatures, disinfectants and drugs. Lab. Anim. 13, 227–230 (1979).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Santillana-Hayat M, Sarfati C, Fournier S et al. Effects of chemical and physical agents on viability and infectivity of Encephalitozoon intestinalis determined by cell culture and flow cytometry. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 46, 2049–2051 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar