227
Views
148
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Praziquantel for the treatment of schistosomiasis: its use for control in areas with endemic disease and prospects for drug resistance

&
Pages 199-210 | Published online: 10 Jan 2014

References

  • Chitsulo L, Engels D, Montresor A, Savioli L. The global status of schistosomiasis and its control. Acta Tropica77(1), 41–51 (2000).
  • Engels D, Chitsulo L, Montresor A, Savioli L. The global epidemiological situation of schistosomiasis and new approaches to control and research. Acta Tropica82(2), 139–146 (2002).
  • van der Werf MJ, de Vlas SJ, Brooker S et al. Quantification of clinical morbidity associated with schistosome infection in sub-Saharan Africa. Acta Tropica86(2–3), 125–139 (2003).
  • Whitty CJM, Mabey DC, Armstrong M, Wright SG, Chiodini PL. Presentation and outcome of 1107 cases of schistosomiasis from Africa diagnosed in a non-endemic country. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg.94(5), 531–534 (2000).
  • Southgate VR. Schistosomiasis in the Senegal river basin: before and after the construction of the dams at Diama, Senegal and Manantali, Mali and future prospects. J. Helminthol.71(2), 125–132 (1997).
  • Anderson RM, May RM.Infectious Diseases of Humans: Dynamics and Control. Oxford University Press, UK (1992).
  • Christopherson JB. The successful use of antimony in bilharziosis. Administration as intravenous injections of antimonium tartaratum (tartar emetic). Lancetii, 325–327 (1918).
  • Cioli D, Pica-Mattoccia L, Archer S. Antischistosomal drugs – past, present... and future. Pharmacol. Ther.68(1), 35–85 (1995).
  • Chen MG. Use of praziquantel for clinical treatment and morbidity control of schistosomiasis japonica in China: a review of 30 years’ experience. Acta Trop.96(2–3), 168–176 (2005).
  • Hagan P, Appleton CC, Coles GC, Kusel JR, Tchuem-Tchuente LA. Schistosomiasis control: keep taking the tablets. Trends Parasitol.20(2), 92–97 (2004).
  • Cioli D, Pica-Mattoccia L. Praziquantel. Parasitol. Res.90(Suppl. 1), S3–S9 (2003).
  • Fenwick A, Savioli L, Engels D, Robert Bergquist N, Todd MH. Drugs for the control of parasitic diseases: current status and development in schistosomiasis. Trends Parasitol.19(11), 509–515 (2003).
  • Doenhoff MJ, Kusel JR, Coles GC, Cioli D. Resistance of Schistosoma mansoni to praziquantel: is there a problem? Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg.96(5), 465–469 (2002).
  • Fenwick A, Rollinson D, Southgate V. Implementation of human schistosomiasis control: challenges and prospects.Adv. Parasitol. (2006) (In press).
  • Groll E. Praziquantel. Adv. Pharmacol. Chemother.20, 219–238 (1984).
  • Seubert J, Pohlke R, Loebich F. Synthesis and properties of praziquantel, a novel broad-spectrum anthelmintic with excellent activity against schistosomes and cestodes. Experientia33(8), 1036–1037 (1977).
  • Gonnert R, Andrews P. Praziquantel, a new broad-spectrum antischistosomal agent. Z. Parasitenkd.52(2), 129–150 (1977).
  • Katz N, Rocha RS, Chaves A. Preliminary trials with praziquantel in human infections due to Schistosoma mansoni. Bull. World Health Organ.57(5), 781–785 (1979).
  • Davis A, Biles JE, Ulrich AM. Initial experiences with praziquantel in the treatment of human infections due to Schistosoma haematobium. Bull. World Health Organ.57(5), 773–779 (1979).
  • Ishizaki T, Kamo E, Boehme K. Double-blind studies of tolerance to praziquantel in Japanese patients with Schistosoma japonicum infections. Bull. World Health Organ.57(5), 787–791 (1979).
  • Andrews P, Thomas H, Pohlke R, Seubert J. Praziquantel. Med. Res. Rev.3(2), 147–200 (1983).
  • Liu YH, Qian MX, Wang XG et al. Comparative efficacy of praziquantel and its optic isomers in experimental-therapy of schistosomiasis japonica in rabbits. Chin. Med. J.99(12), 935–940 (1986).
  • Wu MH, Wei CC, Xu ZY et al. Comparative efficacy of levo-praziquantel and praziquantel in treatment of schistosomiasis japonica at a single dose. Chin. Med. J.104(9), 732–735 (1991).
  • Savioli L, Engels D, Roungou JB, Fenwick A, Endo H. Schistosomiasis control. Lancet363(9409), 658–658 (2004).
  • Doenhoff M, Kimani G, Cioli D. Praziquantel and the control of schistosomiasis. Parasitol. Today16(9), 364–366 (2000).
  • Appleton CC, Mbaye A. Praziquantel – quality, dosages and markers of resistance. Trends Parasitol.17(8), 356–357 (2001).
  • Sulaiman SM, Traore M, Engels D, Hagan P, Cioli D. Counterfeit praziquantel. Lancet358(9282), 666–667 (2001).
  • WHO. Prevention and control of schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted helminthiasis; report of a WHO Expert Committee. WHO Technical Report Series No. 912. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland (2002).
  • N’Goran EK, Gnaka HN, Tanner M, Utzinger J. Efficacy and side-effects of two praziquantel treatments against Schistosoma haematobium infection, among schoolchildren from Cote d’Ivoire. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol.97(1), 37–51 (2003).
  • Castro N, Medina R, Sotelo J, Jung H. Bioavailability of praziquantel increases with concomitant administration of food. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother.44(10), 2903–2904 (2000).
  • Valencia CI, Catto BA, Webster LT, Barcelon E, Ofendo-Reyes R. Concentration time course of praziquantel in Filipinos with mild Schistosoma japonicum infection. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health25, 409–414 (1994).
  • Leopold G, Ungethum W, Groll E, Diekmann HW, Nowak H, Wegner DHG. Clinical pharmacology in normal volunteers of praziquantel, a new drug against schistosomes and cestodes – example of a complex study covering both tolerance and pharmacokinetics. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol.14(4), 281–291 (1978).
  • Mandour MEM, Elturabi H, Homeida MMA et al. Pharmacokinetics of praziquantel in healthy-volunteers and patients with schistosomiasis. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg.84(3), 389–393 (1990).
  • Webbe G, James C. Comparison of susceptibility to praziquantel of Schistosoma haematobium, Schistosoma japonicum, S. mansoni, Schistosoma intercalatum and Schistosoma mattheei in hamsters. Z. Parasitenkd.52(2), 169–177 (1977).
  • Wegner DHG. The profile of the trematodicidal compound praziquantel. Arzneimittelforschung34–2(9B), 1132–1136 (1984).
  • Sabah AA, Fletcher C, Webbe G, Doenhoff MJ. Schistosoma mansoni – chemotherapy of infections of different ages. Exp. Parasitol.61(3), 294–303 (1986).
  • Xiao SH, Catto BA, Webster LT. Effects of praziquantel on different developmental stages of Schistosoma mansoni in vitro and in vivo. J. Infect. Dis.151(6), 1130–1137 (1985).
  • Pica-Mattoccia L, Cioli D. Sex- and stage-related sensitivity of Schistosoma mansoni to in vivo and in vitro praziquantel treatment. Int. J. Parasitol.34(4), 527–533 (2004).
  • Xiao SH. Development of antischistosomal drugs in China, with particular consideration to praziquantel and the artemisinins. Acta Tropica.96(2–3), 153–167 (2005).
  • Botros S, Pica-Mattoccia L, William S, El-Lakkani N, Cioli D. Effect of praziquantel on the immature stages of Schistosoma haematobium. Int. J. Parasitol.35(13), 1453–1457 (2005).
  • Andrews P. Praziquantel: mechanisms of anti-schistosomal activity. Pharmacol. Ther.29(1), 129–156 (1985).
  • Patzschke K, Putter J, Wegner LA, Horster FA, Diekmann HW. Serum concentrations and renal excretion in humans after oral administration of praziquantel – results of three determination methods. Eur. J. Drug Metab. Pharmacokinet.4(3), 149–156 (1979).
  • Steiner K, Garbe A, Diekmann HW, Novak H. The fate of praziquantel in the organism. I: pharmacokinetics in animals. Eur. J. Drug Metab. Pharmacokinet.1, 85–95 (1976).
  • Masimirembwa CM, Hasler JA. Characterization of praziquantel metabolism by rat-liver microsomes using cytochrome-P450 inhibitors. Biochem. Pharmacol.48(9), 1779–1783 (1994).
  • Jung H, Medina R, Castro N, Corona T, Sotelo J. Pharmacokinetic study of praziquantel administered alone and in combination with cimetidine in a single-day therapeutic regimen. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother.41(6), 1256–1259 (1997).
  • El Guiniady MA, El Touny MA, Abdelbary MA, Abdelfatah SA, Metwally A. Clinical and pharmacokinetic study of praziquantel in Egyptian schistosomiasis patients with and without liver-cell failure. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.51(6), 809–818 (1994).
  • Wang FX, Zhu YQ, Yao QS et al. Effect in vitro of metabolites of praziquantel on Schistosoma japonicum. Zhongguo Yao Li Xue Bao4(1), 45–48 (1983).
  • Frohberg H. Results of toxicological studies on praziquantel. Arzneimittelforschung34–2(9B), 1137–1144 (1984).
  • Kramers PGN, Gentile JM, Gryseels BJAM et al. Review of the genotoxicity and carcinogenicity of antischistosomal drugs – is there a case for a study of mutation epidemiology – report of a task group on mutagenic antischistosomals. Mutat. Res.257(1), 49–89 (1991).
  • Ketkar M, Althoff J, Mohr U. A chronic study of praziquantel in Syrian golden hamsters and Sprague-Dawley rats. Toxicology24(3–4), 345–350 (1982).
  • Montero R, Ostrosky P. Genotoxic activity of praziquantel. Mutat. Res.387(3), 123–139 (1997).
  • Bassily S, Farid Z, Dunn M, Elmasry NA, Stek M. Praziquantel for treatment of schistosomiasis in patients with advanced hepatosplenomegaly. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol.79(6), 629–634 (1985).
  • Allen HE, Crompton DW, de Silva N, LoVerde PT, Olds GR. New policies for using anthelmintics in high risk groups. Trends Parasitol.18(9), 381–382 (2002).
  • Jaoko WG, Muchemi G, Oguya FO. Praziquantel side effects during treatment of Schistosoma mansoni infected pupils in Kibwezi, Kenya. East Afr. Med. J.73(8), 499–501 (1996).
  • Berhe N, Gundersen SG, Abebe F, Birrie H, Medhin G, Gemetchu T. Praziquantel side effects and efficacy related to Schistosoma mansoni egg loads and morbidity in primary school children in north-east Ethiopia. Acta Trop.72(1), 53–63 (1999).
  • Polderman AM, Gryseels B, Gerold JL, Mpamila K, Manshande JP. Side effects of praziquantel in the treatment of Schistosoma mansoni in Maniema, Zaire. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg.78(6), 752–754 (1984).
  • Pax R, Bennett JL, Fetterer R. A benzodiazine derivative and praziquantel: effects on musculature of Schistosoma mansoni and Schistosoma japonicum. Naunyn Schiedbergs Arch. Pharmacol.304, 309–315 (1978).
  • Nechay BR, Hillman GR, Dotson MJ. Properties and drug sensitivity of adenosine triphosphatases from Schistosoma mansoni. J. Parasitol.66(4), 596–600 (1980).
  • Becker B, Mehlhorn H, Andrews P, Thomas H, Eckert J. Light and electron microscopic studies on the effect of praziquantel on Schistosoma mansoni, Dicrocoelium dendriticum, and Fasciola hepatica (Trematoda) in vitro. Z Parasitenkd.63(2), 113–128 (1980).
  • Mehlhorn H, Becker B, Andrews P, Thomas H, Frenkel JK. In vivo and in vitro experiments on the effects of praziquantel on Schistosoma mansoni. A light and electron microscopic study. Arzneimittelforschung31(3a), 544–554 (1981).
  • Harnett W, Kusel JR. Increased exposure of parasite antigens at the surface of adult male Schistosoma mansoni exposed to praziquantel in vitro. Parasitology93(Pt 2), 401–405 (1986).
  • Sabah AA, Fletcher C, Webbe G, Doenhoff MJ. Schistosoma mansoni: reduced efficacy of chemotherapy in infected T-cell-deprived mice. Exp. Parasitol.60(3), 348–354 (1985).
  • Brindley PJ, Sher A. The chemotherapeutic effect of praziquantel against Schistosoma mansoni is dependent on host antibody response. J. Immunol.139(1), 215–220 (1987).
  • Doenhoff MJ, Sabah AA, Fletcher C, Webbe G, Bain J. Evidence for an immune-dependent action of praziquantel on Schistosoma mansoni in mice. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg.81(6), 947–951 (1987).
  • Doenhoff MJ, Modha J, Lambertucci JR. Anti-schistosome chemotherapy enhanced by antibodies specific for a parasite esterase. Immunology65(4), 507–510 (1988).
  • Brindley PJ, Sher A. Immunological involvement in the efficacy of praziquantel. Exp. Parasitol.71(2), 245–248 (1990).
  • Karanja DM, Boyer AE, Strand M et al. Studies on schistosomiasis in western Kenya: II. Efficacy of praziquantel for treatment of schistosomiasis in persons coinfected with human immunodeficiency virus-1. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.59(2), 307–311 (1998).
  • Bricker CS, Depenbusch JW, Bennett JL, Thompson DP. The relationship between tegumental disruption and muscle contraction in Schistosoma mansoni exposed to various compounds. Z Parasitenkd.69(1), 61–71 (1983).
  • Harder A, Goossens J, Andrews P. Influence of praziquantel and Ca2+ on the bilayer-isotropic-hexagonal transition of model membranes. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol.29(1), 55–59 (1988).
  • Schepers H, Brasseur R, Goormaghtigh E, Duquenoy P, Ruysschaert JM. Mode of insertion of praziquantel and derivatives into lipid membranes. Biochem. Pharmacol.37(8), 1615–1623 (1988).
  • McTigue MA, Williams DR, Tainer JA. Crystal structures of a schistosomal drug and vaccine target: glutathione S-transferase from Schistosoma japonica and its complex with the leading antischistosomal drug praziquantel. J. Mol. Biol.246(1), 21–27 (1995).
  • Milhon JL, Thiboldeaux RL, Glowac K, Tracy JW. Schistosoma japonicum GSH S-transferase Sj26 is not the molecular target of praziquantel action. Exp. Parasitol.87(3), 268–274 (1997).
  • Greenberg RM. Are Ca2+ channels targets of praziquantel action? Int. J. Parasitol.35(1), 1–9 (2005).
  • Kohn AB, Anderson PA, Roberts-Misterly JM, Greenberg RM. Schistosome calcium channel beta subunits. Unusual modulatory effects and potential role in the action of the antischistosomal drug praziquantel. J. Biol. Chem.276(40), 36873–36876 (2001).
  • Kohn AB, Roberts-Misterly JM, Anderson PA, Greenberg RM. Creation by mutagenesis of a mammalian Ca(2+) channel beta subunit that confers praziquantel sensitivity to a mammalian Ca(2+) channel. Int. J. Parasitol.33(12), 1303–1308 (2003).
  • Kohn AB, Roberts-Misterly JM, Anderson PA, Khan N, Greenberg RM. Specific sites in the beta interaction domain of a schistosome Ca2+ channel beta subunit are key to its role in sensitivity to the anti-schistosomal drug praziquantel. Parasitology127(Pt 4), 349–356 (2003).
  • Cioli D, Pica-Mattoccia L, Archer S. Drug resistance in schistosomes. Parasitol. Today9(5), 162–166 (1993).
  • WHO. Report of the WHO informal consultation on schistosomiasis in low transmission areas: control strategies and criteria for elimination. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland (2001).
  • Magnussen P. Treatment and re-treatment strategies for schistosomiasis control in different epidemiological settings: a review of 10 years’ experiences. Acta Tropica86(2–3), 243–254 (2003).
  • Utzinger J, Bergquist R, Shu-Hua X, Singer BH, Tanner M. Sustainable schistosomiasis control – the way forward. Lancet362(9399), 1932–1934 (2003).
  • El-Khoby T, Galal N, Fenwick A. The USAID Government of Egypt’s Schistosmiasis Research Project (SRP). Parasitol. Today14, 92–96 (1998).
  • Gryseels B. The relevance of schistosomiasis for public health. Trop. Med. Parasitol.40(2), 134–142 (1989).
  • Secor WE. Immunology of human schistosomiasis: off the beaten path. Parasite Immunol.27(7–8), 309–316 (2005).
  • King CH, Dickman K, Tisch DJ. Reassessment of the cost of chronic helmintic infection: a meta-analysis of disability-related outcomes in endemic schistosomiasis. Lancet365(9470), 1561–1569 (2005).
  • Bergquist NR, Leonardo LR, Mitchell GF. Vaccine-linked chemotherapy: can schistosomiasis control benefit from an integrated approach? Trends Parasitol.21(3), 112–117 (2005).
  • Fenwick A. New initiatives against Africa’s worms. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg.100(3), 200–207 (2006).
  • Southgate VR, Rollinson D, Tchuem Tchuente LA, Hagan P. Towards control of schistosomiasis in sub-Saharan Africa. J. Helminthol.79(3), 181–185 (2005).
  • Kabatereine NB, Tukahebwa E, Kazibwe F et al. Progress towards countrywide control of schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted helminthiasis in Uganda. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg.100(3), 208–215 (2006).
  • Stelma FF, Talla I, Polman K et al. Epidemiology of Schistosoma mansoni infection in a recently exposed community in northern Senegal. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.49(6), 701–706 (1993).
  • Gryseels B, Stelma FF, Talla I et al. Epidemiology, immunology and chemotherapy of Schistosoma mansoni infections in a recently exposed community in Senegal. Trop. Geogr. Med.46(4 Spec. No.), 209–219 (1994).
  • Stelma FF, Talla I, Sow S et al. Efficacy and side effects of praziquantel in an epidemic focus of Schistosoma mansoni. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.53(2), 167–170 (1995).
  • Guisse F, Polman K, Stelma FF et al. Therapeutic evaluation of two different dose regimens of praziquantel in a recent Schistosoma mansoni focus in Northern Senegal. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.56(5), 511–514 (1997).
  • Tchuem Tchuente LA, Southgate VR, Mbaye A, Engels D, Gryseels B. The efficacy of praziquantel against Schistosoma mansoni infection in Ndombo, northern Senegal. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg.95(1), 65–66 (2001).
  • Fallon PG, Sturrock RF, Niang AC, Doenhoff MJ. Short report: diminished susceptibility to praziquantel in a Senegal isolate of Schistosoma mansoni. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.53(1), 61–62 (1995).
  • Fallon PG, Mubarak JS, Fookes RE et al. Schistosoma mansoni: maturation rate and drug susceptibility of different geographic isolates. Exp. Parasitol.86(1), 29–36 (1997).
  • Liang YS, Coles GC, Doenhoff MJ, Southgate VR. In vitro responses of praziquantel-resistant and -susceptible Schistosoma mansoni to praziquantel. Int. J. Parasitol.31(11), 1227–1235 (2001).
  • Stelma FF, Sall S, Daff B, Sow S, Niang M, Gryseels B. Oxamniquine cures Schistosoma mansoni infection in a focus in which cure rates with praziquantel are unusually low. J. Infect. Dis.176(1), 304–307 (1997).
  • Ismail M, Metwally A, Farghaly A, Bruce J, Tao LF, Bennett JL. Characterization of isolates of Schistosoma mansoni from Egyptian villagers that tolerate high doses of praziquantel. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.55(2), 214–218 (1996).
  • Ismail M, Botros S, Metwally A et al. Resistance to praziquantel: direct evidence from Schistosoma mansoni isolated from Egyptian villagers. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.60(6), 932–935 (1999).
  • William S, Botros S. Validation of sensitivity to praziquantel using Schistosoma mansoni worm muscle tension and Ca2+-uptake as possible in vitro correlates to in vivo ED50 determination. Int. J. Parasitol.34(8), 971–977 (2004).
  • William S, Botros S, Ismail M, Farghally A, Day TA, Bennett JL. Praziquantel-induced tegumental damage in vitro is diminished in schistosomes derived from praziquantel-resistant infections. Parasitology122(Pt 1), 63–66 (2001).
  • Fallon PG, Doenhoff MJ. Drug-resistant schistosomiasis: resistance to praziquantel and oxamniquine induced in Schistosoma mansoni in mice is drug specific. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.51(1), 83–88 (1994).
  • Cioli D, Botros SS, Wheatcroft-Francklow K et al. Determination of ED50 values for praziquantel in praziquantel-resistant and -susceptible Schistosoma mansoni isolates. Int. J. Parasitol.34(8), 979–987 (2004).
  • Pereira C, Fallon PG, Cornette J, Capron A, Doenhoff MJ, Pierce RJ. Alterations in cytochrome-C oxidase expression between praziquantel-resistant and susceptible strains of Schistosoma mansoni. Parasitology117(Pt 1), 63–73 (1998).
  • Tsai MH, Marx KA, Ismail MM, Tao L. Randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) polymerase chain reaction assay for identification of Schistosoma mansoni strains sensitive or tolerant to anti-schistosomal drugs. J. Parasitol.86(1), 146–149 (2000).
  • Valle C, Troiani AR, Festucci A et al. Sequence and level of endogenous expression of calcium channel beta subunits in Schistosoma mansoni displaying different susceptibilities to praziquantel. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol.130(2), 111–115 (2003).
  • Liang YS, Coles GC, Dai JR, Zhu YC, Doenhoff MJ. Adult worm tegumental damage and egg-granulomas in praziquantel-resistant and -susceptible Schistosoma mansoni treated in vivo. J. Helminthol.76(4), 327–333 (2002).
  • Danso-Appiah A, De Vlas SJ. Interpreting low praziquantel cure rates of Schistosoma mansoni infections in Senegal. Trends Parasitol.18(3), 125–129 (2002).
  • Renganathan E, Cioli D. An international initiative on praziquantel use. Parasitol. Today14(10), 390–391 (1998).
  • Gryseels B, Mbaye A, De Vlas SJ et al. Are poor responses to praziquantel for the treatment of Schistosoma mansoni infections in Senegal due to resistance? An overview of the evidence. Trop. Med. Int. Health6(11), 864–873 (2001).
  • Utzinger J, N’Goran EK, N’Dri A, Lengeler C, Tanner M. Efficacy of praziquantel against Schistosoma mansoni with particular consideration for intensity of infection. Trop. Med. Int. Health5(11), 771–778 (2000).
  • Botros S, Sayed H, Amer N, El-Ghannam M, Bennett JL, Day TA. Current status of sensitivity to praziquantel in a focus of potential drug resistance in Egypt. Int. J. Parasitol.35(7), 787–791 (2005).
  • William S, Sabra A, Ramzy F et al. Stability and reproductive fitness of Schistosoma mansoni isolates with decreased sensitivity to praziquantel. Int. J. Parasitol.31(10), 1093–1100 (2001).
  • Martin PJ, Le Jambre LF, Claxton JH. The impact of refugia on the development of thiabendazole resistance in Haemonchus contortus. Int. J. Parasitol.11(1), 35–41 (1981).
  • van Wyk JA. Refugia – overlooked as perhaps the most potent factor concerning the development of anthelmintic resistance. Onderstepoort J. Vet. Res.68(1), 55–67 (2001).
  • Coles GC. Sustainable use of anthelmintics in grazing animals. Vet. Rec.151(6), 165–169 (2002).
  • Kabatereine NB, Kemijumbi J, Ouma JH et al. Efficacy and side effects of praziquantel treatment in a highly endemic Schistosoma mansoni focus at Lake Albert, Uganda. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg.97(5), 599–603 (2003).
  • Doenhoff MJ, Chiodini PL, Hamilton JV. Specific and sensitive diagnosis of schistosome infection: can it be done with antibodies?Trends Parasitol.20(1), 35–39 (2004).
  • Doenhoff MJ. Is schistosomicidal chemotherapy sub-curative? Implications for drug resistance. Parasitol. Today14(10), 434–435 (1998).
  • Lawn SD, Lucas SB, Chiodini PL. Case report: Schistosoma mansoni infection: failure of standard treatment with praziquantel in a returned traveller. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg.97(1), 100–101 (2003).
  • Alonso D, Munoz J, Gascon J, Valls ME, Corachan M. Failure of standard treatment with praziquantel in two returned travelers with Schistosoma haematobium infection. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.74(2), 342–344 (2006).
  • N’Goran EK, Utzinger J, Gnaka HN et al. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of oral artemether for the prevention of patent Schistosoma haematobium infections. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.68(1), 24–32 (2003).
  • Li YS, Chen HG, He HB, Hou XY, Ellis M, McManus DP. A double-blind field trial on the effects of artemether on Schistosoma japonicum infection in a highly endemic focus in southern China. Acta Trop.96(2–3), 184–190 (2005).
  • Utzinger J, Chollet J, Tu Z, Xiao S, Tanner M. Comparative study of the effects of artemether and artesunate on juvenile and adult Schistosoma mansoni in experimentally infected mice. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg.96(3), 318–323 (2002).
  • Ashley EA, White NJ. Artemisinin-based combinations. Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis.18(6), 531–536 (2005).
  • Yang ZS, Wu WM, Li Y, Wu YL. Design and synthesis of novel artemisinin-like ozonides with antischistosomal activity. Helvetica Chimica Acta88(11), 2865–2872 (2005).
  • Sheir Z, Nasr AA, Massoud A et al. A safe, effective, herbal antischistosomal therapy derived from myrrh. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.65(6), 700–704 (2001).
  • Botros S, William S, Ebeid F et al. Lack of evidence for an antischistosomal activity of myrrh in experimental animals. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.71(2), 206–210 (2004).
  • Barakat R, Elmorshedy H, Fenwick A. Efficacy of myrrh in the treatment of human schistosomiasis mansoni. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.73(2), 365–367 (2005).
  • Botros S, Sayed H, El-Dusoki H et al. Efficacy of mirazid in comparison with praziquantel in Egyptian Schistosoma mansoni-infected school children and households. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.72(2), 119–123 (2005).
  • Druilhe P, Tall A, Sokhna C. Worms can worsen malaria: towards a new means to roll back malaria? Trends Parasitol.21(8), 359–362 (2005).
  • Fenwick A, Molyneux D, Nantulya V. Achieving the millennium development goals. Lancet365(9464), 1029–1030 (2005).
  • Molyneux DH, Hotez PJ, Fenwick A. ‘Rapid-impact interventions’: how a policy of integrated control for Africa’s neglected tropical diseases could benefit the poor. PLoS Med.2(11), e336 (2005).

Websites

  • WHO Model List (revised March 2005) http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2005/a87017_eng.pdf
  • Schistosomiasis Control Initiative 2006 www.schisto.org
  • Mectizan® Donation Program www.mectizan.org/
  • Eliminating Lymphatic Filariasis www.gsk.com/filariasis/

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.