123
Views
10
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Clinical management of diabetic foot infection: diagnostics, therapeutics and the future

, &
Pages 117-127 | Published online: 10 Jan 2014

References

  • Lavery LA, Armstrong DG, Wunderlich RP, Tredwell J, Boulton AJ. Diabetic foot syndrome: evaluating the prevalence and incidence of foot pathology in Mexican Americans and non-Hispanic whites from a diabetes disease management cohort. Diabetes Care26(5), 1435–1438 (2003).
  • Lavery LA, Armstrong DG, Wunderlich RP, Mohler MJ, Wendel CS, Lipsky BA. Risk factors for foot infections in individuals with diabetes. Diabetes Care29(6), 1288–1293 (2006).
  • Wild S, Roglic G, Green A, Sicree R, King H. Global prevalence of diabetes: estimates for the year 2000 and projections for 2030. Diabetes Care27(5), 1047–1053 (2004).
  • Boulton AJ, Vileikyte L, Ragnarson-Tennvall G, Apelqvist J. The global burden of diabetic foot disease. Lancet366(9498), 1719–1724 (2005).
  • Price P. The diabetic foot: quality of life. Clin. Infect. Dis.39(Suppl. 2), S129–S131 (2004).
  • Carmona GA, Hoffmeyer P, Herrmann FR et al. Major lower limb amputations in the elderly observed over ten years: the role of diabetes and peripheral arterial disease. Diabetes Metab.31(5), 449–454 (2005).
  • Lipsky BA. Medical treatment of diabetic foot infections. Clin. Infect. Dis.39(Suppl. 2), S104–S114 (2004).
  • Lipsky BA, Berendt AR, Deery HG et al. Diagnosis and treatment of diabetic foot infections. Clin. Infect. Dis.39(7), 885–910 (2004).
  • Falanga V. Wound healing and its impairment in the diabetic foot. Lancet366(9498), 1736–1743 (2005).
  • Zykova SN, Jenssen TG, Berdal M, Olsen R, Myklebust R, Seljelid R. Altered cytokine and nitric oxide secretion in vitro by macrophages from diabetic Type II-like db/db mice. Diabetes49(9), 1451–1458 (2000).
  • Rich J, Lee JC. The pathogenesis of Staphylococcus aureus infection in the diabetic NOD mouse. Diabetes54(10), 2904–2910 (2005).
  • Tentolouris N, Petrikkos G, Vallianou N et al. Prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in infected and uninfected diabetic foot ulcers. Clin. Microbiol. Infect.12(2), 186–189 (2006).
  • Kessler L, Piemont Y, Ortega F et al. Comparison of microbiological results of needle puncture vs superficial swab in infected diabetic foot ulcer with osteomyelitis. Diabet. Med.23(1), 99–102 (2006).
  • Abdulrazak A, Bitar ZI, Al-Shamali AA, Mobasher LA. Bacteriological study of diabetic foot infections. J. Diabetes Complications19(3), 138–141 (2005).
  • Dang CN, Prasad YD, Boulton AJ, Jude EB. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in the diabetic foot clinic: a worsening problem. Diabet. Med.20(2), 159–161 (2003).
  • Lew DP, Waldvogel FA. Osteomyelitis. N. Engl. J. Med.336(14), 999–1007 (1997).
  • Jeffcoate WJ, Lipsky BA. Controversies in diagnosing and managing osteomyelitis of the foot in diabetes. Clin. Infect. Dis.39(Suppl. 2), S115–S122 (2004).
  • Lipsky BA, Armstrong DG, Citron DM, Tice AD, Morgenstern DE, Abramson MA. Ertapenem versus piperacillin/tazobactam for diabetic foot infections (SIDESTEP): prospective, randomised, controlled, double-blinded, multicentre trial. Lancet366(9498), 1695–1703 (2005).
  • Hartemann-Heurtier A, Robert J, Jacqueminet S et al. Diabetic foot ulcer and multidrug-resistant organisms: risk factors and impact. Diabet. Med.21(7), 710–715 (2004).
  • King MD, Humphrey BJ, Wang YF, Kourbatova EV, Ray SM, Blumberg HM. Emergence of community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus USA 300 clone as the predominant cause of skin and soft-tissue infections. Ann. Intern. Med.144(5), 309–317 (2006).
  • Holtom PD, Zamorano D, Patzakis MJ. Osteomyelitis attributable to vancomycin-resistant enterococci. Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res.2002(403), 38–44 (2002).
  • Appelbaum PC. MRSA – the tip of the iceberg. Clin. Microbiol. Infect.12(Suppl. 2), 3–10 (2006).
  • Chang S, Sievert DM, Hageman JC et al. Infection with vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus containing the vanA resistance gene. N. Engl. J. Med.348(14), 1342–1347 (2003).
  • Rodriguez-Bano J, Navarro MD, Romero L et al. Clinical and molecular epidemiology of extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli as a cause of nosocomial infection or colonization: implications for control. Clin. Infect. Dis.42(1), 37–45 (2006).
  • Nelson EA, O’Meara S, Craig D et al. A series of systematic reviews to inform a decision analysis for sampling and treating infected diabetic foot ulcers. Health Technol. Assess.10(12), 1–238 (2006).
  • Schinabeck MK, Johnson JL. Osteomyelitis in diabetic foot ulcers. Prompt diagnosis can avert amputation. Postgrad. Med.118(1), 11–15 (2005).
  • Tan PL, Teh J. MRI of the diabetic foot: differentiation of infection from neuropathic change. Br. J. Radiol. DOI: 0: 30036666v1 (2006) (Epub ahead of print).
  • Berendt AR, Lipsky B. Is this bone infected or not? Differentiating neuro-osteoarthropathy from osteomyelitis in the diabetic foot. Curr. Diab. Rep.4(6), 424–429 (2004).
  • Cavanagh PR, Lipsky BA, Bradbury AW, Botek G. Treatment for diabetic foot ulcers. Lancet366(9498), 1725–1735 (2005).
  • Armstrong DG, Lavery LA, Sariaya M, Ashry H. Leukocytosis is a poor indicator of acute osteomyelitis of the foot in diabetes mellitus. J. Foot Ankle Surg.35(4), 280–283 (1996).
  • Eneroth M, Larsson J, Apelqvist J. Deep foot infections in patients with diabetes and foot ulcer: an entity with different characteristics, treatments, and prognosis. J. Diabetes Complications13(5–6), 254–263 (1999).
  • Redkar R, Kalns J, Butler W et al. Identification of bacteria from a non-healing diabetic foot wound by 16 S rDNA sequencing. Mol. Cell. Probes14(3), 163–169 (2000).
  • Rajbhandari SM, Sutton M, Davies C, Tesfaye S, Ward JD. ‘Sausage toe’: a reliable sign of underlying osteomyelitis. Diabet. Med.17(1), 74–77 (2000).
  • Grayson ML, Gibbons GW, Balogh K, Levin E, Karchmer AW. Probing to bone in infected pedal ulcers. A clinical sign of underlying osteomyelitis in diabetic patients. JAMA.273(9), 721–723 (1995).
  • Senneville E, Melliez H, Beltrand E et al. Culture of percutaneous bone biopsy specimens for diagnosis of diabetic foot osteomyelitis: concordance with ulcer swab cultures. Clin. Infect. Dis.42(1), 57–62 (2006).
  • Zuluaga AF, Galvis W, Saldarriaga JG, Agudelo M, Salazar BE, Vesga O. Etiologic diagnosis of chronic osteomyelitis: a prospective study. Arch. Intern. Med.166(1), 95–100 (2006).
  • Williams DT, Hilton JR, Harding KG. Diagnosing foot infection in diabetes. Clin. Infect. Dis.39(Suppl. 2), S83–S86 (2004).
  • Ledermann HP, Morrison WB. Differential diagnosis of pedal osteomyelitis and diabetic neuroarthropathy: MR Imaging. SeminMusculoskelet. Radiol.9(3), 272–283 (2005).
  • Chatha DS, Cunningham PM, Schweitzer ME. MR imaging of the diabetic foot: diagnostic challenges. Radiol. Clin. North Am.43(4), 747–759 (2005).
  • Lipsky BA, Berendt AR, Embil J, De Lalla F. Diagnosing and treating diabetic foot infections. Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev.20(Suppl. 1), S56–S64 (2004).
  • Schaper NC. Diabetic foot ulcer classification system for research purposes: a progress report on criteria for including patients in research studies. Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev.20(Suppl. 1), S90–S95 (2004).
  • Robson MC, Steed DL, Franz MG. Wound healing: biologic features and approaches to maximize healing trajectories. Curr. Probl. Surg.38(2), 72–140 (2001).
  • Senneville E. Antimicrobial interventions for the management of diabetic foot infections. Expert Opin. Pharmacother.6(2), 263–273 (2005).
  • Nelson EA, O’Meara S, Golder S, Dalton J, Craig D, Iglesias C. Systematic review of antimicrobial treatments for diabetic foot ulcers. Diabet. Med.23(4), 348–359 (2006).
  • Harkless L, Boghossian J, Pollak R et al. An open-label, randomized study comparing efficacy and safety of intravenous piperacillin/tazobactam and ampicillin/sulbactam for infected diabetic foot ulcers. Surg. Infect. (Larchmt.)6(1), 27–40 (2005).
  • Legat FJ, Krause R, Zenahlik P et al. Penetration of piperacillin and tazobactam into inflamed soft tissue of patients with diabetic foot infection. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother.49(10), 4368–4371 (2005).
  • Keating GM, Perry CM. Ertapenem: a review of its use in the treatment of bacterial infections. Drugs65(15), 2151–2178 (2005).
  • Lipsky BA, Pecoraro RE, Larson SA, Hanley ME, Ahroni JH. Outpatient management of uncomplicated lower-extremity infections in diabetic patients. Arch. Intern. Med.150(4), 790–797 (1990).
  • Grim SA, Rapp RP, Martin CA, Evans ME. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole as a viable treatment option for infections caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Pharmacotherapy25(2), 253–264 (2005).
  • Edmiston CE, Krepel CJ, Seabrook GR et al. In vitro activities of moxifloxacin against 900 aerobic and anaerobic surgical isolates from patients with intra-abdominal and diabetic foot infections. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother.48(3), 1012–1016 (2004).
  • Muller M, Brunner M, Hollenstein U et al. Penetration of ciprofloxacin into the interstitial space of inflamed foot lesions in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus patients. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother.43(8), 2056–2058 (1999).
  • Oberdorfer K, Swoboda S, Hamann A et al. Tissue and serum levofloxacin concentrations in diabetic foot infection patients. J. Antimicrob. Chemother.54(4), 836–839 (2004).
  • Edmiston CE Jr, Krepel CJ, Kehl KS et al. Comparative in vitro antimicrobial activity of a novel quinolone, garenoxacin, against aerobic and anaerobic microbial isolates recovered from general, vascular, cardiothoracic and otolaryngologic surgical patients. J. Antimicrob. Chemother.56(5), 872–878 (2005).
  • Senneville E, Yazdanpanah Y, Cazaubiel M et al. Rifampicin-ofloxacin oral regimen for the treatment of mild to moderate diabetic foot osteomyelitis. J. Antimicrob. Chemother.48(6), 927–930 (2001).
  • Peppard WJ, Weigelt JA. Role of linezolid in the treatment of complicated skin and soft tissue infections. Expert Rev. Anti Infect. Ther.4(3), 357–366 (2006).
  • McKinnon PS, Sorensen SV, Liu LZ, Itani KM. Impact of linezolid on economic outcomes and determinants of cost in a clinical trial evaluating patients with MRSA complicated skin and soft-tissue infections. Ann. Pharmacother.40(6), 1017–1023 (2006).
  • Lipsky BA, Itani K, Norden C. Treating foot infections in diabetic patients: a randomized, multicenter, open-label trial of linezolid versus ampicillin-sulbactam/amoxicillin-clavulanate. Clin. Infect. Dis.38(1), 17–24 (2004).
  • Rybak MJ, Hershberger E, Moldovan T, Grucz RG. In vitro activities of daptomycin, vancomycin, linezolid, and quinupristin-dalfopristin against staphylococci and enterococci, including vancomycin- intermediate and -resistant strains. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother.44(4), 1062–1066 (2000).
  • Lipsky BA, Stoutenburgh U. Daptomycin for treating infected diabetic foot ulcers: evidence from a randomized, controlled trial comparing daptomycin with vancomycin or semi-synthetic penicillins for complicated skin and skin-structure infections. J. Antimicrob. Chemother.55(2), 240–245 (2005).
  • Aneziokoro CO, Cannon JP, Pachucki CT, Lentino JR. The effectiveness and safety of oral linezolid for the primary and secondary treatment of osteomyelitis. J. Chemother.17(6), 643–650 (2005).
  • Rao N, Ziran BH, Hall RA, Santa ER. Successful treatment of chronic bone and joint infections with oral linezolid. Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res.2004(427), 67–71 (2004).
  • Fritsche TR, Sader HS, Stilwell MG, Dowzicky MJ, Jones RN. Potency and spectrum of tigecycline tested against an international collection of bacterial pathogens associated with skin and soft tissue infections (2000–2004). Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis.52(3), 195–201 (2005).
  • Livermore DM. Can β-lactams be re-engineered to beat MRSA? Clin. Microbiol. Infect.12(Suppl. 2), 11–16 (2006).
  • Legat FJ, Maier A, Dittrich P et al. Penetration of fosfomycin into inflammatory lesions in patients with cellulitis or diabetic foot syndrome. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother.47(1), 371–374 (2003).
  • Stengel D, Gorzer E, Schintler M et al. Second-line treatment of limb-threatening diabetic foot infections with intravenous fosfomycin. J. Chemother.17(5), 527–535 (2005).
  • Armstrong DG, Lipsky BA. Advances in the treatment of diabetic foot infections. Diabetes Technol. Ther.6(2), 167–177 (2004).
  • Roeder B, Van Gils CC, Maling S. Antibiotic beads in the treatment of diabetic pedal osteomyelitis. J. Foot Ankle Surg.39(2), 124–130 (2000).
  • Bergin SM, Wraight P. Silver based wound dressings and topical agents for treating diabetic foot ulcers. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. (1), CD005082 (2006).
  • Reddy KV, Yedery RD, Aranha C. Antimicrobial peptides: premises and promises. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents24(6), 536–547 (2004).
  • Ge Y, MacDonald D, Henry MM et al. In vitro susceptibility to pexiganan of bacteria isolated from infected diabetic foot ulcers. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis.35(1), 45–53 (1999).
  • Apelqvist J, Ragnarson-Tennvall G. Cavity foot ulcers in diabetic patients: a comparative study of cadexomer iodine ointment and standard treatment. An economic analysis alongside a clinical trial. Acta Derm. Venereol.76(3), 231–235 (1996).
  • Tan JS. Foot infections in diabetic patients. Curr. Infect. Dis. Rep.6(5), 377–379 (2004).
  • Sumpio BE, Lee T, Blume PA. Vascular evaluation and arterial reconstruction of the diabetic foot. Clin. Podiatr. Med. Surg.20(4), 689–708 (2003).
  • Aksoy DY, Gurlek A, Cetinkaya Y et al. Change in the amputation profile in diabetic foot in a tertiary reference center: efficacy of team working. Exp. Clin. Endocrinol. Diabetes112(9), 526–530 (2004).
  • Armstrong DG, Salas P, Short B et al. Maggot therapy in ‘lower-extremity hospice’ wound care: fewer amputations and more antibiotic-free days. J. Am. Podiatr. Med. Assoc.95(3), 254–257 (2005).
  • Sherman RA. Maggot therapy for treating diabetic foot ulcers unresponsive to conventional therapy. Diabetes Care26(2), 446–451 (2003).
  • Cruciani M, Lipsky BA, Mengoli C, de Lalla F. Are granulocyte colony-stimulating factors beneficial in treating diabetic foot infections? A meta-analysis. Diabetes Care28(2), 454–460 (2005).
  • Berendt AR. Counterpoint: hyperbaric oxygen for diabetic foot wounds is not effective. Clin. Infect. Dis.43(2), 193–198 (2006).
  • Barnes RC. Point: hyperbaric oxygen is beneficial for diabetic foot wounds. Clin. Infect. Dis.43(2), 188–192 (2006).
  • Sweitzer SM, Fann SA, Borg TK, Baynes JW, Yost MJ. What is the future of diabetic wound care? Diabetes Educ.32(2), 197–210 (2006).
  • Saar WE, Lee TH, Berlet GC. The economic burden of diabetic foot and ankle disorders. Foot Ankle Int.26(1), 27–31 (2005).
  • Ragnarson-Tennvall G, Apelqvist J. Health-economic consequences of diabetic foot lesions. Clin. Infect. Dis.39(Suppl 2), S132–S139 (2004).
  • Tennvall GR, Apelqvist J, Eneroth M. Costs of deep foot infections in patients with diabetes mellitus. Pharmacoeconomics18(3), 225–238 (2000).
  • Clarke P, Gray A, Legood R, Briggs A, Holman R. The impact of diabetes-related complications on healthcare costs: results from the United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS Study No. 65). Diabet. Med.20(6), 442–450 (2003).

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.