Economics of antibiotic resistance

References

• Spellberg B, Guidos R, Gilbert D et al. The epidemic of antibiotic-resistant infections: a call to action for the medical community from the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin. Infect. Dis.46, 155–164 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yalcin AN. Socioeconomic burden of nosocomial infections. Indian J. Med. Sci.57(10), 450–456 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Eandi M, Zara GP, Della Pepa C. Application of pharmacoeconomics to the use of antibiotics. Clin. Microbiol. Infect.6(Suppl. 3), 90–92 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arda B, Sipahi OR, Yamazhan T et al. Short-term effect of antibiotic control policy on the usage patterns and cost of antimicrobials, mortality, nosocomial infection rates and antibacterial resistance. J. Infect.55(1), 41–48 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coast J, Smith RD. Antimicrobial resistance, cost and containment. Expert Rev. Anti Infect. Ther.1, 241–251 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tunger O, Dinc G, Ozbakkaloglu B, Atman UC, Algun O. Evaluation of rational antibiotic use. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents15, 131–135 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Etiler BN, Saba R, Günseren F, Mamikoglu L. Akdeniz Universite Hastanesi’nde uygunsuz antimikrobiyal ilac kullanimin dogrudan maliyeti karsilastirilmasi. Turk. J. Hosp. Infect.4, 144–147 (2000).
   Google Scholar
• Buke C, Sipahi OR, Tasbakan M et al. The evaluation of the infections developing in intensive care unit of the internal medicine department. Turk. J. Infect.19, 67–73 (2005).
   Google Scholar
• Usluer G, Ozgunes I, Leblebicioglu H. Turkish antibiotic utilization study group. A multicenter point-prevalence study: antimicrobial prescription frequencies in hospitalized patients in Turkey. Ann. Clin. Microbiol. Antimicrob.4, 16 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gould IM. Costs of hospital-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and its control. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents28(5), 379–384 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Livermore DM. Bacterial resistance: origins, epidemiology, and impact. Clin. Infect. Dis.36(Suppl. 1), S11–S23 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kernodle DS, Kaiser AB. Postoperative infections and antimicrobial prophylaxis. In: Mandell, Douglas and Bennett’s Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases. Mandell GL, Bennett JE, Dolin R (Eds). Churchill Livingstone, PA, USA, 3177–3191 (2000).
   Google Scholar
• Archer GL, Armstrong BC. Alteration of staphylococcal flora in cardiac patients receiving antibiotic prophylaxis. J. Infect. Dis.147, 642–649 (1983).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kernodle DS, Barg NL, Kaiser AB. Low-level colonization of hospitalized patients with methicillin resistant coagulase-negative staphylococci and their emergence during surgical antimicrobial prophylaxis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother.32, 202–208 (1988).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matteelli A, Migliori GB, Cirillo D, Centis R, Girard E, Raviglion M. Multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis: epidemiology and control. Expert Rev. Anti Infect. Ther.5(5), 857–871 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Danel F, Hall LM, Gur D, Akalin HE, Livermore DM. Transferable production of PER-1 β-lactamase in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J. Antimicrob. Chemother.35(2), 281–294 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tansel O, Kuloglu F, Mutlu B et al. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus outbreak in a new university hospital due to a strain transferred with an infected patient from another city six months previously. Turk. J. Infect.16(4), 457–461 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Falagas ME, Bliziotis IA. Pandrug-resistant Gram-negative bacteria: the dawn of the post-antibiotic era? Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents29(6), 630–636 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nordmann P, Naas T, Fortineau N, Poirel L. Superbugs in the coming new decade; multidrug resistance and prospects for treatment of Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus spp. and Pseudomonas aeruginosa in 2010. Curr. Opin. Microbiol.10(5), 436–440 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beno P, Krcmery V, Demitrovicova A. Bacteraemia in cancer patients caused by colistin-resistant Gram-negative bacilli after previous exposure to ciprofloxacin and/or colistin. Clin. Microbiol. Infect.12, 497–498 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akalin H. Colistin. Ankem Dergisi21(Suppl. 2), 26–28 (2007).
   Google Scholar
• Buke C, Sipahi OR, Yurtseven T, Zileli M. High dose of intrathecal netilmicin in the treatment of nosocomial Acinetobacter baumannii meningitis. J. Infect.51(5), 420–422 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akram M, Shahid M, Khan AU. Etiology and antibiotic resistance patterns of community-acquired urinary tractinfections in JNMC Hospital Aligarh, India. Ann. Clin. Microbiol. Antimicrob.6, 4 (2007).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yildirim M, Sahin I, Basak S et al. The investigation of nasal carriage and colonization of nasopharingeal pathogens at a primary school in Duzce. Turk. J. Med. Sci.37, 359–365 (2007).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huijsdens XW, van Dijke BJ, Spalburg E et al. Community-acquired MRSA and pig-farming. Ann. Clin. Microbiol. Antimicrob.5, 26 (2006).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cesur S, Cokça F. Determination of nasal carriage rates of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus in hospital personnel and in the community. Mikrobiyol. Bul.36(3–4), 247–252 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• MacDougall C, Polk RE. Antimicrobial stewardship programs in health care systems. Clin. Microbiol. Rev.18(4), 638–656 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dellit TH, Owens RC, McGowan JE Jr et al. Infectious Diseases Society of America and the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America guidelines for developing an institutional program to enhance antimicrobial stewardship. Clin. Infect. Dis.44(2), 159–177 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arslan H, Azap OK, Ergönül O, Timurkaynak F; Urinary Tract Infection Study Group. Risk factors for ciprofloxacin resistance among Escherichia coli strains isolated from community-acquired urinary tract infections in Turkey. J. Antimicrob. Chemother.56(5), 914–918 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kader AA, Kumar A, Kamath KA. Fecal carriage of extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae in patients and asymptomatic healthy individuals. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol.28(9), 1114–1116 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mesa RJ, Blanc V, Blanch AR et al. Extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae in different environments (humans, food, animal farms and sewage). J. Antimicrob. Chemother.58(1), 211–215 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Migliori GB, Besozzi G, Girardi E et al. Clinical and operational value of the extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis definition. Eur. Respir. J.30(4), 623–626 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Migliori GB, Ortmann J, Girardi E et al.; SMIRA/TBNET Study Group. Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis, Italy and Germany. Emerg. Infect. Dis.13(5), 780–782 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saygan MB, Ocak F, Cesur S et al. Susceptibilities of Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains collected from regional tuberculosis laboratories to major antituberculous drugs. Mikrobiyol. Bul.41(3), 403–409 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cavusoglu C, Turhan A, Akinci P, Soyler I. Evaluation of the Genotype MTBDR assay for rapid detection of rifampin and isoniazid resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates. J. Clin. Microbiol.44(7), 2338–2342 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Espinal MA, Laserson K, Camacho M et al. Determinants of drug-resistant tuberculosis: analysis of 11 countries. Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis.5(10), 887–893 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shah NS, Wright A, Bai GH et al. Worldwide emergence of extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis. Emerg. Infect. Dis.13(3), 380–387 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pullukcu H, Tasbakan M, Sipahi OR, Yamazhan T, Aydemir S, Ulusoy S. Fosfomycin in the treatment of extended spectrum β-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli-related lower urinary tract infections. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents29(1), 62–65 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwaber MJ, Navon-Venezia S, Kaye KS, Ben-Ami R, Schwartz D, Carmeli Y. Clinical and economic impact of bacteremia with extended-spectrum-β-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother.50(4), 1257–1262 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lautenbach E, Patel JB, Bilker WB, Edelstein PH, Fishman NO. Extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae: risk factors for infection and impact of resistance on outcomes. Clin. Infect. Dis.32(8), 1162–1171 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lodise TP, McKinnon PS. Clinical and economic impact of methicillin resistance in patients with Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis.52(2), 113–122 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cosgrove SE, Qi Y, Kaye KS, Harbarth S, Karchmer AW, Carmeli Y. The impact of methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia on patient outcomes: mortality, length of stay, and hospital charges. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol.26(2), 166–174 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vergis EN, Hayden MK, Chow JW et al. Determinants of vancomycin resistance and mortality rates in enterococcal bacteremia. a prospective multicenter study. Ann. Intern. Med.135(7), 484–492 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kwon KT, Oh WS, Song JH et al. Impact of imipenem resistance on mortality in patients with Acinetobacter bacteraemia. J. Antimicrob. Chemother.59(3), 525–530 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young LS, Sabel AL, Price CS. Epidemiologic, clinical, and economic evaluation of an outbreak of clonal multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii infection in a surgical intensive care unit. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol.28(11), 1247–1254. (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson SJ, Knipe CJ, Zieger MJ et al. Direct costs of multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii in the burn unit of a public teaching hospital. Am. J. Infect. Control32(6), 342–344 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aloush V, Navon-Venezia S, Seigman-Igra Y, Cabili S, Carmeli Y. Multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa: risk factors and clinical impact. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother.50(1), 43–48 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cosgrove SE. The relationship between antimicrobial resistance and patient outcomes: mortality, length of hospital stay, and health care costs. Clin. Infect. Dis.42(Suppl. 2), S82–S89 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilbert DN, Moellering RC, Eliopulos GM, Sande MA. The Sanford Guide to Antimicrobial Therapy (38th Edition). Antimicorbial Therapy Inc., VA, USA (2008).
   Google Scholar
• Loffler CA, MacDougall C. Update on prevalence and treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Exp. Rev. Anti-Infect. Ther.5, 961–981 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Torres JA, Villegas NV, Quinn JP. Current concepts in antibiotic-resistant Gram-negative bacteria. Exp. Rev. Anti-Infect. Ther.5, 833–843 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paterson DL, Ko WC, Von Gottberg A et al. Antibiotic therapy for Klebsiella pneumoniae bacteremia: implications of production of extended-spectrum β-lactamases. Clin. Infect. Dis.39(1), 31–37 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paterson DL, Ko WC, Von Gottberg A et al. International prospective study of Klebsiella pneumoniae bacteremia: implications of extended-spectrum β-lactamase production in nosocomial infections. Ann. Intern. Med.140(1), 26–32 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwaber MJ, Carmeli Y. Mortality and delay in effective therapy associated with extended-spectrum β-lactamase production in Enterobacteriaceae bacteraemia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Antimicrob. Chemother.60(5), 913–920 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitby M, McLaws ML, Berry G. Risk of death from methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia: a meta-analysis. Med. J. Aust.175(5), 264–267 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daxboeck F, Budic T, Assadian O, Reich M, Koller W. Economic burden associated with multi-resistant Gram-negative organisms compared with that for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a university teaching hospital. J. Hosp. Infect.62(2), 214–218 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gandhi NR, Moll A, Sturm AW et al. Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis as a cause of death in patients co-infected with tuberculosis and HIV in a rural area of South Africa. Lancet368(9547), 1575–1580 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harbarth S, Harris AD, Carmeli Y, Samore MH. Parallel analysis of individual and aggregated data on antibiotic exposure and resistance in Gram-negative bacilli. Clin. Infect. Dis.33(9), 1462–1468 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• López-Lozano JM, Monnet DL, Yague A et al. Modelling and forecasting antimicrobial resistance and its dynamic relationship to antimicrobial use: a time series analysis. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents14(1), 21–31 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hocquet D, Muller A, Blanc K, Plésiat P, Talon D, Monnet DL, Bertrand X. Relationship between antibiotic use and incidence of MexXY-OprM overproducers among clinical isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother.52(3), 1173–1175 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rogues AM, Dumartin C, Amadéo B et al. Relationship between rates of antimicrobial consumption and the incidence of antimicrobial resistance in Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates from 47 French hospitals. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol.28(12), 1389–1395 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hsu DI, Okamoto MP, Murthy R, Wong-Beringer A. Fluoroquinolone-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa: risk factors for acquisition and impact on outcomes. J. Antimicrob. Chemother.55(4), 535–541 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nguyen LH, Hsu DI, Ganapathy V, Shriner K, Wong-Beringer A. Reducing empirical use of fluoroquinolones for Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections improves outcome. J. Antimicrob. Chemother.61(3), 714–720 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dancer SJ. The effects of antibiotics on methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J. Antimicrob. Chemother.61(2), 246–253 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donskey CJ, Chowdhry TK, Hecker MT et al. Effect of antibiotic therapy on the density of vancomycin-resistant enterococci in the stool of colonized patients. N. Engl. J. Med.343(26), 1925–1932 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donskey CJ. The role of the intestinal tract as a reservoir and source for transmission of nosocomial pathogens. Clin. Infect. Dis.39, 219–226 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paterson DL, Muto CA, Ndirangu M et al. Acquisition of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus rectal colonization among intensive care unit patients treated with piperacillin/tazobactam versus cefepime-containing antibiotic regimens. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother.52(2), 465–469 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malhotra-Kumar S, Lammens C, Coenen S, Van Herck K, Goossens H. Effect of azithromycin and clarithromycin therapy on pharyngeal carriage of macrolide-resistant streptococci in healthy volunteers: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Lancet369(9560), 482–490 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garau J. Impact of antibiotic restrictions: the ethical perspective. Clin. Microbiol. Infect.12(Suppl. 5), 16–24 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ntagiopoulos PG, Paramythiotou E, Antoniadou A, Giamarellou H, Karabinis A. Impact of an antibiotic restriction policy on the antibiotic resistance patterns of Gram-negative microorganisms in an intensive care unit in Greece. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents30(4), 360–365 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kunin CM. Resistance to antimicrobial drugs – a worldwide calamity. Ann. Intern. Med.118(7), 557–561 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Willemsen I, Groenhuijzen A, Bogaers D, Stuurman A, van Keulen P, Kluytmans J. Appropriateness of antimicrobial therapy measured by repeated prevalence surveys. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother.51(3), 864–867 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sacar S, Kavas ST, Asan A, Cenger DH, Turgut H. Point prevalence study relating to antibiotic usage in Pamukkale University hospital. ANKEM Dergisi20, 217–221 (2006).
   Google Scholar
• Tarhan MO, Cetin GO, Tipirdamaz H, Mutlu A, Biberoglu K. Cerrahide profilaktik antibiyotik kullanimi: bir anket çalismasi ve sonuçlari. Ilac ve Tedavi Dergisi9, 307–310 (1996).
   Google Scholar
• Hosoglu S, Sunbul M, Erol S et al. A national survey of surgical antibiotic prophylaxis in Turkey. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol.24, 758–761 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bugnon-Reber A, de Torrente A, Troillet N, Genne D; ETUDAS group. Antibiotic misuse in medium-sized Swiss hospitals. Swiss Med. Wkly134, 481–485 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bailly P, Lallemand S, Thouverez M, Talon D. Multicentre study on the appropriateness of surgical antimicrobial prophylaxis. J. Hosp. Infect.49, 135–138 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yalcin AN, Serin S, Gurses E, Zencir M. Surgical antibiotic prophylaxis in a Turkish university hospital. J. Chemother.14, 373–377 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen YS, Liu YH, Kunin CM, Huang JK, Tsai CC. Use of prophylactic antibiotics in surgery at a medical center in southern Taiwan. J. Formos. Med. Assoc.101, 741–748 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dagan O, Cox PN, Ford-Jones L, Ponsonby J, Bohn DJ. Nosocomial infection following cardiovascular surgery: comparison of two periods, 1987 vs. 1992. Crit. Care Med.27, 104–108 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buke C, Sipahi OR, Basoglu MT et al. Evaluation of surgical prophylaxis in heart surgery. Presented at: 15th European Congress of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ECCMID), Copenhagen, Denmark, 2–5 April, 2005. P1051 Clin. Microbiol. Infect.11(Suppl. 2), 326–327 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erdem I, Yildirim I, Avkan V, Vahaboglu H. Gereksiz antibiyotik kullaniminin maliyeti: gozleme dayali bir calismanin sonuclarinin analizi. Ulusal Cerrahi Dergisi13, 75–79 (1997).
   Google Scholar
• Bratzler DW, Houck PM. Antimicrobial prophylaxis for surgery: an advisory statement from the National Surgical Infection Prevention Project. Clin. Infect. Dis.38, 1706–1715 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Joffe AR, Muscedere J, Marshall JC, Su Y, Heyland DK; for the Canadian Critical Care Trials Group. The safety of targeted antibiotic therapy for ventilator-associated pneumonia: a multicenter observational study. J. Crit. Care.23(1), 82–90 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marschall J, Agniel D, Fraser VJ, Doherty J, Warren DK. Gram-negative bacteraemia in non-ICU patients: factors associated with inadequate antibiotic therapy and impact on outcomes. J. Antimicrob. Chemother.61(6), 1376–1383 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buke AC, Ermertcan S, Hosgor-Limoncu M, Ciceklioglu M, Eren S. Rational antibiotic use and academic staff. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents21(1), 63–66 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buke C, Hosgor-Limoncu M, Ermertcan S et al. Irrational use of antibiotics among university students. J. Infect.51(2), 135–139 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kardas P, Pechère JC, Hughes DA, Cornaglia G. A global survey of antibiotic leftovers in the outpatient setting. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents30(6), 530–536 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wagstaff B. Impact of antibiotic restrictions: the patient’s perspective. Clin. Microbiol. Infect.12(Suppl. 5), 10–15 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bloom P, Weisberg DS. Childhood origins of adult resistance to science. Science316(5827), 996–997 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bilic-Zulle L, Frkovic V, Turk T, Azman J, Petrovecki M. Prevalence of plagiarism among medical students. Croat. Med. J.46(1), 126–131 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riis P. Scientific dishonestry: European reflections. J. Clin. Pathol.54(1), 4–6 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Korenman SG, Berk R, Wenger NS, Lew V. Evaluation of the research norms of scientists and administrators responsible for academic research integrity. JAMA279(1), 41–47 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson J. Fraud in research, 1986–1992: an annotated bibliography. J. Infor. Ethics3(2), 64–89 (1994).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Arda B, Yamazhan T, Sipahi OR, Islekel S, Buke C, Ulusoy S. Meningitis due to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA): review of 10 cases. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents25(5), 414–418 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guldal D, Semin S. The influences of drug companies’ advertising programs on physicians. Int. J. Health Serv.30(3), 585–595 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shinefield H, Black S, Fattom A et al. Use of a Staphylococcus aureus conjugate vaccine in patients receiving hemodialysis. N. Engl. J. Med.346, 491–496 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salleras L, Domínguez A, Cardeñosa N. Impact of mass vaccination with polysaccharide conjugate vaccine against serogroup C meningococcal disease in Spain. Vaccine21(7–8), 725–728 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitney CG, Farley MM, Hadler J et al. Decline in invasive pneumococcal disease after the introduction of protein–polysaccharide conjugate vaccine. N. Engl. J. Med.348(18), 1737–1746 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poehling KA, Talbot TR, Griffin MR et al. Invasive pneumococcal disease among infants before and after introduction of pneumococcal conjugate vaccine. JAMA295, 1668–1674 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stephens DS, Zughaier SM, Whitney CG et al. Incidence of macrolide resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae after introduction of the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine: population-based assessment. Lancet365, 855–863 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lexau CA, Lynfield R, Danila R et al. Changing epidemiology of invasive pneumococcal disease among older adults in the era of pediatric pneumococcal conjugate vaccine. JAMA294(16), 2043–2051 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kyaw MH, Lynfield R, Schaffner W et al. Effect of introduction of the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine on drug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. N. Engl. J. Med.354(14), 1455–1463 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coskun D, Aytac J. The decrease in healthcare-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections and savings from glycopeptide use. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol.27(10), 1131–1132 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chaix C, Durand-Zaleski I, Alberti C, Brun-Buisson C. Control of endemic methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: a cost–benefit analysis in an intensive care unit. JAMA282(18), 1745–1751 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Björholt I, Haglind E. Cost-savings achieved by eradication of epidemic methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (EMRSA)-16 from a large teaching hospital. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis.23(9), 688–695 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kunori T, Cookson B, Roberts JA, Stone S, Kibbler C. Cost–effectiveness of different MRSA screening methods. J. Hosp. Infect.51(3), 189–200 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grmek-Kosnik I, Ihan A, Dermota U, Rems M, Kosnik M, Jorn Kolmos H. Evaluation of separate vs pooled swab cultures, different media, broth enrichment and anatomical sites of screening for the detection of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus from clinical specimens. J. Hosp. Infect.61(2), 155–161 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conterno LO, Shymanski J, Ramotar K et al. Real-time polymerase chain reaction detection of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: impact on nosocomial transmission and costs. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol.28(10), 1134–1141 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coskun D, Aytac J. Decrease in Staphylococcus aureus surgical-site infection rates after orthopaedic surgery after intranasal mupirocin ointment. J. Hosp. Infect.58(1), 90–91 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Naz H, Cevik FÇ, Aykin N. Nasal Staphylococcus aureus carriage among hospital staff in Eskisehir Yunus Emre state hospital. ANKEM Dergisi20(3), 141–144 (2006).
   Google Scholar
• Vardar-Unlu G, Unlu G, Yagmuroglu A. Mupirocin resistance of Staphylococcus aureus and coagulase-negative staphylococci isolated from clinical specimens. ANKEM Dergisi20(4), 222–225 (2006).
   Google Scholar
• Conterno LO, Shymanski J, Ramotar K, Toye B, Zvonar R, Roth V. Impact and cost of infection control measures to reduce nosocomial transmission of extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing organisms in a non-outbreak setting. J. Hosp. Infect.65(4), 354–360 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thouverez M, Talon D, Bertrand X. Control of Enterobacteriaceae producing extended-spectrum β-lactamase in intensive care units: rectal screening may not be needed in non-epidemic situations. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol.25(10), 838–841 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buke C, Armand-Lefevre L, Lolom I et al. Epidemiology of multidrug-resistant bacteria in patients with long hospital stays. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol.28(11), 1255–1260 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin SJ. Antimicrobial stewardship: the aspirin of the 21st century. Expert. Rev. Anti Infect. Ther.5(2), 159–161 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petrak MR, Sexton DJ, Butera ML et al. The value of an infectious diseases specialist. Clin. Infect. Dis.36, 1013–1017 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erbay A, Bodur H, Akinci E, Coplan A. Evaluation of antibiotic use in intensive care units of a tertiary care hospital in Turkey, J. Hosp. Infect.59, 53–61 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hirscman SZ, Meyers BR, Bradbury K, Mehl B, Gendelman S, Kimelblatt B. Use of antimicrobial agents in a university teaching hospital. Evolution of a comprehensive control program. Arch. Intern. Med.148, 2001–2007 (1988).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kunin CM. The responsibility of the infectious diseases community for the optimal use of antimicrobial agents. J. Infect. Dis.151, 388–398 (1985).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hosoglu S, Esen S, Ozturk R et al. The effect of a restriction policy on the antimicrobial consumption in Turkey: a country-wide study. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol.61(10), 727–731 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ozkurt Z, Erol S, Kadanali A, Ertek M, Ozden K, Tasyaran MA. Changes in antibiotic use, cost and consumption after an antibiotic restriction policy applied by infectious disease specialists. Jpn. J. Infect. Dis.58(6), 338–343 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sipahi OR, Tasbakan M, Pullukcu H et al. Accuracy of consultations performed by infectious diseases trainees and factors associated with adherence to them. Int. J. Infect. Dis.11(6), 518–523 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cicek C, Cok G, Ozhan M, Yaygin E, Bilgic A. Comparison of a Quantiferon-TB test with tuberculin skin test in patients of latent and active tuberculosis infection. Turk. J. Infect.20(1), 15–18 (2006).
   Google Scholar
• Richeldi L. Rapid identification of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. Clin. Microbiol. Infect.12(Suppl. 9), 34–36 (2006).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kish MA. Guide to development of practice guidelines. Clin. Infect. Dis.32, 851–854 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carling P, Fung T, Killion A, Terrin N, Barza M. Favorable impact of a multidisciplinary antibiotic management program conducted during 7 years. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol.24(9), 699–706 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sipahi OR, Pullukcu H, Aydemir S et al. Changes in antibacterial resistance patterns in Staphylococcus aureus strains which are related to microbiologically confirmed nosocomial bacteraemia in a tertiary care educational hospital in Turkey. Ankem Dergisi21(1), 1–4 (2007).
   Google Scholar
• Tasbakan MI, Pullukcu H, Sipahi OR et al. Extended-spectrum β-lactamase production and antimicrobial resistance patterns of Klebsiella pneumoniae strains isolated from nosocomial bacteremic patients: evaluation of the results of 2001–2005 period. Mikrobiyol. Bult.42(1), 1–7 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Azap A, Topcuoglu P, Yesilkaya A et al. The effect of a nationwide antibiotic restriction policy on antibiotic usage in a stem cell transplantation unit. Turkish J. Haematol.22(2), 87–90 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Akan H. Opinions of the Turkish Society of Hematology on rational antibiotic usage. Ankem Dergisi20, 65–67 (2006).
   Google Scholar
• Unal N. Budget application directions and restriction of antibiotic prescriptions from intensivist’s point of view: targets, expectations, conclusions and suggestions. Ankem Dergisi20, 55–60 (2006).
   Google Scholar
• Sipahi OR, Pullukcu H, Tasbakan M, Yamazhan T, Arda B. Letter to the editor. Ankem Dergisi20, 133–136 (2006).
   Google Scholar
• Gorecki W, Grochowska E, Krysta M, Wojciechowski P, Taczanowska A, Stanek B. A prospective comparison of antibiotic usage in pediatric surgical patients: the safety, advantage, and effectiveness of the Surgical Infection Society guidelines versus a common practice. J. Pediatr. Surg.37, 1430–1434 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Projan SJ. Why is big Pharma getting out of antibacterial drug discovery? Curr. Opin. Microbiol.6(5), 427–430 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Power E. Impact of antibiotic restrictions: the pharmaceutical perspective. Clin. Microb. Infect.12(Suppl. 5), 25–34 (2006).
   Google Scholar
• Poirel L, Pitout JD, Nordmann P. Carbapenemases: molecular diversity and clinical consequences. Future Microbiol.2(5), 501–512 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miedzybrodzki R, Fortuna W, Weber-Dabrowska B, Górski A. Phage therapy of staphylococcal infections (including MRSA) may be less expensive than antibiotic treatment. Postepy. Hig. Med. Dosw.61, 461–465 (2007).
   Google Scholar
• Wang J, Soisson SM, Young K et al. Platensimycin is a selective FabF inhibitor with potent antibiotic properties. Nature441, 358–361 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martins M, Dastidar SG, Fanning S et al. Potential role of non-antibiotics (helper compounds) in the treatment of multidrug-resistant Gram-negative infections: mechanisms for their direct and indirect activities. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents31(3), 198–208 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dantas G, Sommer MO, Oluwasegun RD, Church GM. Bacteria subsisting on antibiotics. Science320(5872), 100–103 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance System. National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS) System Report, data summaryfrom January 1992 through June 2004, issued October 2004. Am. J. Infect. Control32(8), 470–485 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kiremitci A, Durmaz G, Akgun Y, Kiraz N, Aybey A, Yelken B. Frequency of isolation and antimicrobial resistance patterns of the microorganisms isolated from various clinical specimens in an anaesthesia intensive care unit, data of year 2003. Turk. J. Infect.20(1), 37–40 (2006).
   Google Scholar
• Suetens C, Morales I, Savey A et al. European surveillance of ICU-acquired infections (HELICS-ICU): methods and main results. J. Hosp. Infect.65(Suppl. 2), 71–73 (2007).
   Google Scholar
• Wertheim HF, Vos MC, Ott A et al. Risk and outcome of nosocomial Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia in nasal carriers versus non-carriers. Lancet364(9435), 703–705 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Celen MK, Ayaz C, Geyik MF, Hosoglu S, Ulug M. Extended-spectrum β-lactamases in Gram-negative bacilli isolated from nosocomial infections. Ankem Dergisi20, 148–151 (2006).
   Google Scholar
• Zarakolu P, Hasçelik G, Unal S. Antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of nosocomial Gram negative pathogens: results from MYSTIC study in Hacettepe University Adult Hospital (2000–2004). Mikrobiyol. Bul.40(3), 147–154 (2006).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stobberingh EE, Arends J, Hoogkamp-Korstanje JA et al. Occurrence of extended-spectrum β-lactamases (ESBL) in Dutch hospitals. Infection27(6), 348–354 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Albertini MT, Benoit C, Berardi L et al. Surveillance of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and Enterobacteriaceae producing extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBLE) in Northern France: a five-year multicentre incidence study. J. Hosp. Infect.52(2), 107–113 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tzelepi E, Magana Ch, Platsouka E et al. Extended-spectrum β-lactamase types in Klebsiella pneumoniae and Escherichia coli in two Greek hospitals. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents21(3), 285–288 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar