New insights into antibody-mediated hyperthyroidism

References

• Ajjan RA, Weetman AP. Autoimmune Thyroid Disease and Autoimmune Polyglandular Syndrome.In: Samter's Immunologic Diseases. Austin KF, Frank MM, Atkinson JP, Cantor H (Eds). Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins, PA, USA (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Brix TH, Christensen K, Holm NV, Harvald B Hegedus L. A population-based study of Graves’ disease in Danish twins. Clin. Endocrinol.48,397–400 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ringold DA, Nicoloff JT, Kesler M et al. Further evidence for a strong genetic influence on the development of autoimmune thyroid disease: the California twin study. Thyroid 12, 647–653 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tomer Y, Davies TF. Searching for the autoimmune thyroid disease susceptibility genes: from gene mapping to gene function. Endocr. Rev.24,694–717 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simmonds MJ, Gough SC. Unravelling the genetic complexity of autoimmune thyroid disease: HLA, CTLA-4 and beyond. Clin. Exp. Immunol.136,1–10 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Heward JM, Allahabadia A, Daykin J et al. Linkage disequilibrium between the human leukocyte antigen class II region of the major histocompatibility complex and Graves’ disease: replication using a population case control and family-based study. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.83, 3394–3397 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Golden B, Levin L, Ban Y et al. Genetic analysis of families with autoimmune diabetes and thyroiditis: evidence for common and unique genes. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 90, 4904–4911 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ban Y, Davies TF, Greenberg DA et al. Arginine at position 74 of the HLA-DR β-1 chain is associated with Graves’ disease. Genes Immun.5, 203–208 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simmonds MJ, Howson JM, Heward JM et al. Regression mapping of association between the human leukocyte antigen region and Graves disease. Am. J. Hum. Genet.76,157–163 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Barbesino G, Tomer Y, Concepcion E, Davies TF, Greenberg DA. Linkage analysis of candidate genes in autoimmune thyroid disease: 1. Selected immunoregulatory genes. International Consortium for the Genetics of Autoimmune Thyroid Disease. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.83,1580–1584 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vaidya B, Pearce S. The emerging role of the CTLA-4 gene in autoimmune endocrinopathies. Eur. J. Endocrinol.150, 619–626 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ueda H, Howson JM, Esposito L et al. Association of the T-cell regulatory gene CTLA4 with susceptibility to autoimmune disease. Nature 423, 506–511 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vaidya B, Imrie H, Perros P et al. The cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen-4 is a major Graves’ disease locus. Hum. Mol. Genet. 8,1195–1199 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ban Y, Concepcion ES, Villanueva R et al. Analysis of immune regulatory genes in familial and sporadic Graves’ disease. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.89,4562–4568 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Velaga MR, Wilson V, Jennings CE et al. The codon 620 tryptophan allele of the lymphoid tyrosine phosphatase (LYP) gene is a major determinant of Graves’ disease. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.89,5862–5865 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tomer Y, Concepcion E, Greenberg DA. A C/T single-nucleotide polymorphism in the region of the CD40 gene is associated with Graves’ disease. Thyroid 12, 1129–1135 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim TY, Park YJ, Hwang JK et al. A C/T polymorphism in the 5´-untranslated region of the CD40 gene is associated with Graves’ disease in Koreans. Thyroid 13, 919–925 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heward JM, Simmonds MJ, Carr-Smith J et al. A single nucleotide polymorphism in the CD40 gene on chromosome 20q (GD-2) provides no evidence for susceptibility to Graves’ disease in UK Caucasians. Clin. Endocrinol. 61, 269–272 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simmonds MJ, Heward JM, Franklyn JA, Gough SC. The CD40 Kozak SNP: a new susceptibility loci for Graves’ disease? Clin. Endocrinol.63,232–233 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jacobson EM, Concepcion E, Oashi T, Tomer Y. A Graves’ disease-associated Kozak sequence single-nucleotide polymorphism enhances the efficiency of CD40 gene translation: a case for translational pathophysiology. Endocrinology 146, 2684–2691 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simmonds MJ, Heward JM, Howson JM et al. A systematic approach to the assessment of known TNF-α polymorphisms in Graves’ disease. Genes Immun.5, 267–273 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blakemore AI, Watson PF, Weetman AP, Duff GW. Association of Graves’ disease with an allele of the interleukin-1 receptor antagonist gene. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.80,111–115 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen RH, Chen WC, Chang CT, Tsai CH, Tsai FJ. Interleukin-1-β gene, but not the interleukin-1 receptor antagonist gene, is associated with graves’ disease. J. Clin. Lab Anal.19,133–138 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bednarczuk T, Placha G, Jazdzewski K et al. Interleukin-13 gene polymorphisms in patients with Graves’ disease. Clin. Endocrinol.59,519–525 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hiromatsu Y, Fukutani T, Ichimura M et al. Interleukin-13 gene polymorphisms confer the susceptibility of Japanese populations to Graves’ disease. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.90,296–301 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chistiakov DA. Thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor and its role in Graves’ disease. Mol. Genet. Metab.80,377–388 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ban Y, Greenberg DA, Concepcion ES, Tomer Y. A germline single nucleotide polymorphism at the intracellular domain of the human thyrotropin receptor does not have a major effect on the development of Graves’ disease. Thyroid 12, 1079–1083 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hiratani H, Bowden DW, Ikegami S et al. Multiple SNPs in intron 7 of thyrotropin receptor are associated with Graves’ disease. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.90,2898–2903 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dechairo BM, Zabaneh D, Collins J et al. Haplotype tagging SNPs across the thyroid stimulating hormone receptor are significantly associated with Graves’ disease. Eur. J. Hum. Genetics(2005). In Press.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tomer Y, Greenberg DA, Concepcion E, Ban Y, Davies TF. Thyroglobulin is a thyroid specific gene for the familial autoimmune thyroid diseases. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.87,404–407 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collins JE, Heward JM, Carr-Smith J et al. Association of a rare thyroglobulin gene microsatellite variant with autoimmune thyroid disease. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.88,5039–5042 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ban Y, Tozaki T, Taniyama M, Tomita M, Ban Y. Association of a thyroglobulin gene polymorphism with Hashimoto’s thyroiditis in the Japanese population. Clin. Endocrinol.61,263–268 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tomer Y, Ban Y, Concepcion E et al. Common and unique susceptibility loci in Graves and Hashimoto diseases: results of whole-genome screening in a data set of 102 multiplex families. Am. J. Hum. Genet.73,736–747 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor JC, Gough SC, Hunt PJ et al. A genome-widescreen in 1119 relative pairs with autoimmune thyroid disease. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. (2005). In Press.
   Google Scholar
• Rose NR, Bonita R, Burek CL. Iodine: an environmental trigger of thyroiditis. Autoimmun. Rev.1,97–103 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ajjan RA, Weetman AP. Cytokines in thyroid autoimmunity. Autoimmunity 36, 351–359 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strieder TG, Prummel MF, Tijssen JG, Endert E, Wiersinga WM. Risk factors for and prevalence of thyroid disorders in a cross-sectional study among healthy female relatives of patients with autoimmune thyroid disease. Clin. Endocrinol.59, 396–401 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lazarus JH. Thyroid disorders associated with pregnancy: etiology, diagnosis, and management. Treat. Endocrinol.4,31–41 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Renne C, Ramos LE, Steimle-Grauer SA et al. Thyroid fetal male microchimerisms in mothers with thyroid disorders: presence of Y-chromosomal immunofluorescence in thyroid-infiltrating lymphocytes is more prevalent in Hashimoto’s thyroiditis and Graves’ disease than in follicular adenomas. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.89,5810–5814 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Invernizzi P, Miozzo M, Selmi C et al. X chromosome monosomy: a common mechanism for autoimmune diseases. J. Immunol.175,575–578 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tomer Y, Davies TF. Infections and autoimmune endocrine disease. Baillieres Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.9,47–70 (1995).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jubault V, Penfornis A, Schillo F et al. Sequential occurrence of thyroid autoantibodies and Graves’ disease after immune restoration in severely immunocompromised human immunodeficiency virus-1-infected patients. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.85, 4254–4257 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coles AJ, Wing M, Smith S et al. Pulsed monoclonal antibody treatment and autoimmune thyroid disease in multiple sclerosis. Lancet354,1691–1695 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matsuda T, Tomita M, Uchihara JN et al. Human T-cell leukemia virus type I-infected patients with hashimoto’s thyroiditis and graves’ disease. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 90(10), 5704–5710 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ando T, Latif R, Davies TF. Thyrotropin receptor antibodies: new insights into their actions and clinical relevance. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.19,33–52 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chazenbalk GD, Pichurin P, Chen CR et al. Thyroid-stimulating autoantibodies in Graves disease preferentially recognize the free A subunit, not the thyrotropin holoreceptor. J. Clin. Invest.110,209–217 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen CR, Pichurin P, Nagayama Y et al. The thyrotropin receptor autoantigen in Graves disease is the culprit as well as the victim. J. Clin. Invest.111,1897–1904 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shepherd PS, Da Costa CR, Cridland JC, Gilmore KS, Johnstone AP. Identification of an important thyrotrophin binding site on the human thyrotrophin receptor using monoclonal antibodies. Mol. Cell Endocrinol.149,197–206 (1999).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ando T, Latif R, Pritsker A et al. A monoclonal thyroid-stimulating antibody. J. Clin. Invest.110,1667–1674 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Costagliola S, Franssen JD, Bonomi M et al. Generation of a mouse monoclonal TSH receptor antibody with stimulating activity. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 299,891–896 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanders J, Jeffreys J, Depraetere H et al. Thyroid-stimulating monoclonal antibodies. Thyroid 12, 1043–1050 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanders J, Evans M, Premawardhana LD et al. Human monoclonal thyroid stimulating autoantibody. Lancet362, 126–128 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ando T, Latif R, Daniel S, Eguchi K, Davies TF. Dissecting linear and conformational epitopes on the native thyrotropin receptor. Endocrinology 145, 5185–5193 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McLachlan SM, Rapoport B. Thyroid stimulating monoclonal antibodies: overcoming the road blocks and the way forward. Clin. Endocrinol.61,10–18 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Morgenthaler NG, Minich WB, Willnich M et al. Affinity purification and diagnostic use of TSH receptor autoantibodies from human serum. Mol. Cell Endocrinol.212, 73–79 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Oda Y, Sanders J, Evans M et al. Epitope analysis of the human thyrotropin (TSH) receptor using monoclonal antibodies. Thyroid 10, 1051–1059 (2000).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Minich WB, Lenzner C, Morgenthaler NG. Antibodies to TSH-receptor in thyroid autoimmune disease interact with monoclonal antibodies whose epitopes are broadly distributed on the receptor. Clin. Exp. Immunol.136,129–136 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chardes T, Chapal N, Bresson D et al. The human antithyroid peroxidase autoantibody repertoire in Graves’ and Hashimoto’s autoimmune thyroid diseases. Immunogenetics 54, 141–157 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ajjan RA, Findlay C, Metcalfe RA et al. The modulation of the human sodium iodide symporter activity by Graves’ disease sera. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.83, 1217–1221 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chin HS, Chin DK, Morgenthaler NG, Vassart G, Costagliola S. Rarity of anti Na+/I- symporter (NIS) antibody with iodide uptake inhibiting activity in autoimmune thyroid diseases (AITD). J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.85,3937–3940 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ajjan RA, Kemp EH, Waterman EA et al. Detection of binding and blocking autoantibodies to the human sodium-iodide symporter in patients with autoimmune thyroid disease. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.85,2020–2027 (2000).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Seissler J, Wagner S, Schott M et al. Low frequency of autoantibodies to the human Na+/I- symporter in patients with autoimmune thyroid disease. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.85,4630–4634 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Catalfamo M, Roura-Mir C, Sospedra M et al. Self-reactive cytotoxic γ δ T lymphocytes in Graves’ disease specifically recognize thyroid epithelial cells. J. Immunol.156,804–811 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weetman AP. Cellular immune responses in autoimmune thyroid disease. Clin. Endocrinol.61,405–413 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Volpe R. Suppressor T lymphocyte dysfunction is important in the pathogenesis of autoimmune thyroid disease: a perspective. Thyroid 3, 345–352 (1993).
   Google Scholar
• Martin A, Nakashima M, Zhou A et al. Detection of major T cell epitopes on human thyroid stimulating hormone receptor by overriding immune heterogeneity in patients with Graves’ disease. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.82, 3361–3366 (1997).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Weiss GR, Fehrenkamp SH, Tokaz LK, Sunderland MC. Vitiligo and Graves’ disease following treatment of malignant melanoma with recombinant human interleukin-4. Dermatology 192, 283–285 (1996).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Komiya I, Yamada T, Sato A et al. Remission and recurrence of hyperthyroid Graves’ disease during and after methimazole treatment when assessed by IgE and interleukin-13. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.86,3540–3544 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Salvi M, Pedrazzoni M, Girasole G et al. Serum concentrations of pro-inflammatory cytokines in Graves’ disease: effect of treatment, thyroid function, ophthalmopathy and cigarette smoking. Eur. J. Endocrinol.143,197–202 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miyauchi S, Matsuura B, Onji M. Increased levels of serum interleukin-18 in Graves’ disease. Thyroid 10, 815–819 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shimojo N, Kohno Y, Yamaguchi K et al. Induction of Graves-like disease in mice by immunization with fibroblasts transfected with the thyrotropin receptor and a class II molecule. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA93, 11074–11079 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kita M, Ahmad L, Marians RC et al. Regulation and transfer of a murine model of thyrotropin receptor antibody mediated Graves’ disease. Endocrinology 140, 1392–1398 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jaume JC, Rapoport B, McLachlan SM. Lack of female bias in a mouse model of autoimmune hyperthyroidism (Graves’ disease). Autoimmunity 29, 269–272 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ando T, Imaizumi M, Graves P, Unger P, Davies TF. Induction of thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor autoimmunity in hamsters. Endocrinology 144, 671–680 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kaithamana S, Fan J, Osuga Y, Liang SG, Prabhakar BS. Induction of experimental autoimmune Graves’ disease in BALB/c mice. J. Immunol.163,5157–5164 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nagayama Y. Animal models of Graves’ hyperthyroidism. Endocr. J.52,385–394 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Costagliola S, Rodien P, Many MC, Ludgate M, Vassart G. Genetic immunization against the human thyrotropin receptor causes thyroiditis and allows production of monoclonal antibodies recognizing the native receptor. J. Immunol.160,1458–1465 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barrett K, Liakata E, Rao PV et al. Induction of hyperthyroidism in mice by intradermal immunization with DNA encoding the thyrotropin receptor. Clin. Exp. Immunol.136,413–422 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pichurin P, Yan XM, Farilla L et al. Naked TSH receptor DNA vaccination: a TH1 T cell response in which interferon-g production, rather than antibody, dominates the immune response in mice. Endocrinology 142, 3530–3536 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nagayama Y, Kita-Furuyama M, Ando T et al. A novel murine model of Graves’ hyperthyroidism with intramuscular injection of adenovirus expressing the thyrotropin receptor. J. Immunol.168, 2789–2794 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baker G, Mazziotti G, von Ruhland C, Ludgate M. Reevaluating thyrotropin receptor-induced mouse models of Graves’ disease and ophthalmopathy. Endocrinology 146, 835–844 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kita-Furuyama M, Nagayama Y, Pichurin P et al. Dendritic cells infected with adenovirus expressing the thyrotrophin receptor induce Graves’ hyperthyroidism in BALB/c mice. Clin. Exp. Immunol.131, 234–240 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kim-Saijo M, Akamizu T, Ikuta K et al. Generation of a transgenic animal model of hyperthyroid Graves’ disease. Eur. J. Immunol.33,2531–2538 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLachlan SM, Nagayama Y, Rapoport B. Insight into graves’ hyperthyroidism from animal models. Endocr. Rev. 26(6), 800–832 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nagayama Y, Saitoh O, McLachlan SM et al. TSH receptor-adenovirus-induced Graves’ hyperthyroidism is attenuated in both interferon-g and interleukin-4 knockout mice; implications for the Th1/Th2 paradigm. Clin. Exp. Immunol.138,417–422 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dogan RN, Vasu C, Holterman MJ, Prabhakar BS. Absence of IL-4, and not suppression of the Th2 response, prevents development of experimental autoimmune Graves’ disease. J. Immunol.170, 2195–2204 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Land KJ, Moll JS, Kaplan MH, Seetharamaiah GS. Signal transducer and activator of transcription (Stat)-6-dependent, but not Stat4-dependent, immunity is required for the development of autoimmunity in Graves’ hyperthyroidism. Endocrinology 145, 3724–3730 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Land KJ, Gudapati P, Kaplan MH, Seetharamaiah GS. Differential requirement of Stat4 and Stat6 in a thyrotropin receptor-289-adenovirus induced model of Graves’ hyperthyroidism. Endocrinology (2005). In Press.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Prabhakar BS, Bahn RS, Smith TJ. Current perspective on the pathogenesis of Graves’ disease and ophthalmopathy. Endocr. Rev.24,802–835 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pfeilschifter J, Ziegler R. Smoking and endocrine ophthalmopathy: impact of smoking severity and current vs. lifetime cigarette consumption. Clin. Endocrinol.45,477–481 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Villanueva R, Inzerillo AM, Tomer Y et al. Limited genetic susceptibility to severe Graves’ ophthalmopathy: no role for CTLA-4 but evidence for an environmental etiology. Thyroid 10, 791–798 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mizokami T, Salvi M, Wall JR. Eye muscle antibodies in Graves’ ophthalmopathy: pathogenic or secondary epiphenomenon? J. Endocrinol. Invest.27,221–229 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bahn RS. Clinical review 157: Pathophysiology of Graves’ ophthalmopathy: the cycle of disease. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.88,1939–1946 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Bellis A, Sansone D, Coronella C et al. Serum antibodies to collagen XIII: a further good marker of active Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Clin. Endocrinol.62, 24–29 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith TJ. The putative role of fibroblasts in the pathogenesis of Graves’ disease: evidence for the involvement of the insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor in fibroblast activation. Autoimmunity 36, 409–415 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marino M, Chiovato L, Lisi S et al. Role of thyroglobulin in the pathogenesis of Graves’ ophthalmopathy: the hypothesis of Kriss revisited. J. Endocrinol. Invest.27, 230–236 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bahn RS. TSH receptor expression in orbital tissue and its role in the pathogenesis of Graves’ ophthalmopathy. J. Endocrinol. Invest.27,216–220 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valyasevi RW, Erickson DZ, Harteneck DA et al. Differentiation of human orbital preadipocyte fibroblasts induces expression of functional thyrotropin receptor. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.84,2557–2562 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumar S, Coenen MJ, Scherer PE, Bahn RS. Evidence for enhanced adipogenesis in the orbits of patients with Graves’ ophthalmopathy. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.89,930–935 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Many MC, Costagliola S, Detrait M et al. Development of an animal model of autoimmune thyroid eye disease. J. Immunol.162,4966–4974 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grubeck-Loebenstein B, Trieb K, Sztankay A et al. Retrobulbar T cells from patients with Graves’ ophthalmopathy are CD8+ and specifically recognize autologous fibroblasts. J. Clin. Invest.93,2738–2743 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pappa A, Calder V, Ajjan R et al. Analysis of extraocular muscle-infiltrating T cells in thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy (TAO). Clin. Exp. Immunol.109,362–369 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heufelder AE. T-cell restriction in thyroid eye disease. Thyroid 8, 419–422 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Heufelder AE, Wenzel BE, Scriba PC. Antigen receptor variable region repertoires expressed by T cells infiltrating thyroid, retroorbital, and pretibial tissue in Graves’ disease. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.81, 3733–3739 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ajjan RA, Weetman AP. New understanding of the role of cytokines in the pathogenesis of Graves’ ophthalmopathy. J. Endocrinol. Invest.27, 237–245 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Costagliola S, Many MC, Stalmans-Falys M, Vassart G, Ludgate M. Transfer of thyroiditis, with syngeneic spleen cells sensitized with the human thyrotropin receptor, to naïve BALB/c and NOD mice. Endocrinology 137, 4637–4643 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Costagliola S, Many MC, Denef JF et al. Genetic immunization of outbred mice with thyrotropin receptor cDNA provides a model of Graves’ disease. J. Clin. Invest. 105,803–811 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weetman AP. Graves’ disease. N. Engl. J. Med.343,1236–1248 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooper DS. Antithyroid drugs. N. Engl. J. Med.352,905–917 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsai WC, Pei D, Wang TF et al. The effect of combination therapy with propylthiouracil and cholestyramine in the treatment of Graves’ hyperthyroidism. Clin. Endocrinol.62,521–524 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bartalena L, Marcocci C, Bogazzi F et al. Relation between therapy for hyperthyroidism and the course of Graves’ ophthalmopathy. N. Engl. J. Med.338, 73–78 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perros P, Kendall-Taylor P, Neoh C, Frewin S, Dickinson J. A prospective study of the effects of radioiodine therapy for hyperthyroidism in patients with minimally active Graves’ ophthalmopathy. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.90,5321–5323 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franklyn JA, Maisonneuve P, Sheppard M, Betteridge J, Boyle P. Cancer incidence and mortality after radioiodine treatment for hyperthyroidism: a population-based cohort study. Lancet353,2111–2115 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kahaly GJ, Pitz S, Hommel G, Dittmar M. Randomized, single blind trial of intravenous versus oral steroid monotherapy in Graves’ orbitopathy. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.90,5234–5240 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• El Kaissi S, Frauman AG, Wall JR. Thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy: a practical guide to classification, natural history and management. Intern. Med. J.34,482–491 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bartalena L, Marcocci C, Tanda ML et al. An update on medical management of Graves’ ophthalmopathy. J. Endocrinol. Invest.28,469–478 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar