A review of supportive care and recommended preventive approaches for patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia

References

• American Cancer Society. Cancer facts & figures 2015. Atlanta (GA): American Cancer Society; 2015.
   Google Scholar
• Molica S. Infections in chronic lymphocytic leukemia: risk factors, and impact on survival, and treatment. Leuk Lymphoma. 1994;13:203–214.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee JS, Dixon DO, Kantarjian HM, et al. Prognosis of chronic lymphocytic leukemia: a multivariate regression analysis of 325 untreated patients. Blood. 1987;69:929–936.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Francis S, Karanth M, Pratt G, et al. The effect of immunoglobulin VH gene mutation status and other prognostic factors on the incidence of major infections in patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Cancer. 2006;107:1023–1033.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morrison VA. Infectious complications of chronic lymphocytic leukaemia: pathogenesis, spectrum of infection, preventive approaches. Best Pract Res Clin Haematol. 2010;23:145–153.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morrison VA. Immunosuppression associated with novel chemotherapy agents and monoclonal antibodies. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;59(Suppl 5):S360–364.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kneitz C, Goller M, Wilhelm M, et al. Inhibition of T cell/B cell interaction by B-CLL cells. Leukemia. 1999;13:98–104.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller DG, Karnofsky DA. Immunologic factors and resistance to infection in chronic lymphatic leukemia. Am J Med. 1961;31:748–757.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chapel HM, Bunch C. Mechanisms of infection in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Semin Hematol. 1987;24:291–296.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Orsini E, Guarini A, Chiaretti S, et al. The circulating dendritic cell compartment in patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia is severely defective and unable to stimulate an effective T-cell response. Cancer Res. 2003;63:4497–4506.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Orsini E, Pasquale A, Maggio R, et al. Phenotypic and functional characterization of monocyte-derived dendritic cells in chronic lymphocytic leukaemia patients: influence of neoplastic CD19 cells in vivo and in vitro. Br J Haematol. 2004;125:720–728.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foa R, Fierro MT, Raspadori D, et al. Lymphokine-activated killer (LAK) cell activity in B and T chronic lymphoid leukemia: defective LAK generation and reduced susceptibility of the leukemic cells to allogeneic and autologous LAK effectors. Blood. 1990;76:1349–1354.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foa R, Fierro MT, Lusso P, et al. Reduced natural killer T-cells in B-cell chronic lymphocytic leukaemia identified by three monoclonal antibodies: Leu-11, A10, AB8.28. Br J Haematol. 1986;62:151–154.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zeya HI, Keku E, Richards F 2nd, et al. Monocyte and granulocyte defect in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Am J Pathol. 1979;95:43–54.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schlesinger M, Broman I, Lugassy G. The complement system is defective in chronic lymphatic leukemia patients and in their healthy relatives. Leukemia. 1996;10:1509–1513.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Praz F, Karsenty G, Binet JL, et al. Complement alternative pathway activation by chronic lymphocytic leukemia cells: its role in their hepatosplenic localization. Blood. 1984;63:463–467.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Itälä M, Helenius H, Nikoskelainen J, et al. Infections and serum IgG levels in patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Eur J Haematol. 1992;48:266–270.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rozman C, Montserrat E, Viñolas N. Serum immunoglobulins in B-chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Natural history and prognostic significance. Cancer. 1988;61:279–283.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freeman JA, Crassini KR, Best OG, et al. Immunoglobulin G subclass deficiency and infection risk in 150 patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Leuk Lymphoma. 2013;54:99–104.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Brien S, Kantarjian H, Beran M, et al. Results of fludarabine and prednisone therapy in 264 patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia with multivariate analysis-derived prognostic model for response to treatment. Blood. 1993;82:1695–1700.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leporrier M, Chevret S, Cazin B, et al. Randomized comparison of fludarabine, CAP, and ChOP in 938 previously untreated stage B and C chronic lymphocytic leukemia patients. Blood. 2001;98:2319–2325.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eichhorst BF, Busch R, Hopfinger G, et al. Fludarabine plus cyclophosphamide versus fludarabine alone in first-line therapy of younger patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Blood. 2006;107:885–891.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Byrd JC, Peterson B, Piro L, et al. A phase II study of cladribine treatment for fludarabine refractory B cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia: results from CALGB Study 9211. Leukemia. 2003;17:323–327.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anaissie EJ, Kontoyiannis DP, O’Brien S, et al. Infections in patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia treated with fludarabine. Ann Intern Med. 1998;129:559–566.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knauf WU, Lissichkov T, Aldaoud A, et al. Phase III randomized study of bendamustine compared with chlorambucil in previously untreated patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia. J Clin Oncol. 2009;27:4378–4384.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fischer K, Cramer P, Busch R, et al. Bendamustine combined with rituximab in patients with relapsed and/or refractory chronic lymphocytic leukemia: a multicenter phase II trial of the German Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia Study Group. J Clin Oncol. 2011;29:3559–3566.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bergmann MA, Goebeler ME, Herold M, et al. Efficacy of bendamustine in patients with relapsed or refractory chronic lymphocytic leukemia: results of a phase I/II study of the German CLL Study Group. Haematologica. 2005;90:1357–1364.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maloney DG, Grillo-López AJ, White CA, et al. IDEC-C2B8 (Rituximab) anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody therapy in patients with relapsed low-grade non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. Blood. 1997;90:2188–2195.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLaughlin P, Grillo-López AJ, Link BK, et al. Rituximab chimeric anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody therapy for relapsed indolent lymphoma: half of patients respond to a four-dose treatment program. J Clin Oncol. 1998;16:2825–2833.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Voog E, Morschhauser F, Solal-Céligny P. Neutropenia in patients treated with rituximab. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:2691–2694. discussion-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keating MJ, Flinn I, Jain V, et al. Therapeutic role of alemtuzumab (Campath-1H) in patients who have failed fludarabine: results of a large international study. Blood. 2002;99:3554–3561.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hwang JP, Barbo AG, Perrillo RP. Hepatitis B reactivation during cancer chemotherapy: an international survey of the membership of the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases. J Viral Hepat. 2015;22:346–352.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laurenti L, Autore F, Innocenti I, et al. Prevalence, characteristics and management of occult hepatitis B virus infection in patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia: a single center experience. Leuk Lymphoma. 2015 Oct;56(10):2841–2846. DOI:10.3109/10428194.2015.1017822. Epub 2015 Mar 14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yeo W, Chan PK, Zhong S, et al. Frequency of hepatitis B virus reactivation in cancer patients undergoing cytotoxic chemotherapy: a prospective study of 626 patients with identification of risk factors. J Med Virol. 2000;62:299–307.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brigden ML, Pattullo AL. Prevention and management of overwhelming postsplenectomy infection–an update. Crit Care Med. 1999;27:836–842.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lynch AM, Kapila R. Overwhelming postsplenectomy infection. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 1996;10:693–707.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raanani P, Gafter-Gvili A, Paul M, et al. Immunoglobulin prophylaxis in chronic lymphocytic leukemia and multiple myeloma: systematic review and meta-analysis. Leuk Lymphoma. 2009;50:764–772.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Brien S, Ravandi-Kashani F, Keating M. A randomized trial of valacyclovir versus valganciclovir to prevent CMV reactivation in patients with CLL receiving alemtuzumab. Blood. 2005;106:830a.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Brien SM, Keating MJ, Mocarski ES. Updated guidelines on the management of cytomegalovirus reactivation in patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia treated with alemtuzumab. Clin Lymphoma Myeloma. 2006;7:125–130.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Liang R. How I treat and monitor viral hepatitis B infection in patients receiving intensive immunosuppressive therapies or undergoing hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Blood. 2009;113:3147–3153.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ziakas PD, Karsaliakos P, Mylonakis E. Effect of prophylactic lamivudine for chemotherapy-associated hepatitis B reactivation in lymphoma: a meta-analysis of published clinical trials and a decision tree addressing prolonged prophylaxis and maintenance. Haematologica. 2009;94:998–1005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gish RG. Hepatitis B treatment: current best practices, avoiding resistance. Cleve Clin J Med. 2009;76(Suppl 3):S14–19.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Watanabe M, Shibuya A, Takada J, et al. Entecavir is an optional agent to prevent hepatitis B virus (HBV) reactivation: a review of 16 patients. Eur J Intern Med. 2010;21:333–337.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu WP, Zheng W, Song YQ, et al. Hepatitis B surface antigen seroconversion after HBV reactivation in non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. World J Gastroenterol. 2014;20:5165–5170.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tenney DJ, Rose RE, Baldick CJ, et al. Long-term monitoring shows hepatitis B virus resistance to entecavir in nucleoside-naïve patients is rare through 5 years of therapy. Hepatology. 2009;49:1503–1514.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hartkamp A, Mulder AH, Rijkers GT, et al. Antibody responses to pneumococcal and haemophilus vaccinations in patients with B-cell chronic lymphocytic leukaemia. Vaccine. 2001;19:1671–1677.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Safdar A, Rodriguez GH, Rueda AM, et al. Multiple-dose granulocyte-macrophage-colony-stimulating factor plus 23-valent polysaccharide pneumococcal vaccine in patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia: a prospective, randomized trial of safety and immunogenicity. Cancer. 2008;113:383–387.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pasiarski M, Rolinski J, Grywalska E, et al. Antibody and plasmablast response to 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine in chronic lymphocytic leukemia patients–preliminary report. PLoS One. 2014;9:e114966.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sinisalo M, Aittoniemi J, Oivanen P, et al. Response to vaccination against different types of antigens in patients with chronic lymphocytic leukaemia. Br J Haematol. 2001;114:107–110.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centkowski P, Brydak L, Machała M, et al. Immunogenicity of influenza vaccination in patients with non-Hodgkin lymphoma. J Clin Immunol. 2007;27:339–346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dalia SCJ, Sotomayor E, Pinilla-Ibarz J, et al. Incidence of second and secondary malignancies in patients with CLL: a single institution experience. 2012 ASCO Annual Meeting; 2012; Chicago, IL.
   Google Scholar
• Tsimberidou AM, Wen S, McLaughlin P, et al. Other malignancies in chronic lymphocytic leukemia/small lymphocytic lymphoma. J Clin Oncol. 2009;27:904–910.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beiggi S, Johnston JB, Seftel MD, et al. Increased risk of second malignancies in chronic lymphocytic leukaemia patients as compared with follicular lymphoma patients: a Canadian population-based study. Br J Cancer. 2013;109:1287–1290.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Royle JA, Baade PD, Joske D, et al. Second cancer incidence and cancer mortality among chronic lymphocytic leukaemia patients: a population-based study. Br J Cancer. 2011;105:1076–1081.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benjamini O, Jain P, Trinh L, et al. Second cancers in patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia who received frontline fludarabine, cyclophosphamide and rituximab therapy: distribution and clinical outcomes. Leuk Lymphoma. 2015 Jun;56(6):1643–1650. DOI:10.3109/10428194.2014.957203. Epub 2014 Nov 19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strati P, Abruzzo LV, Wierda WG, et al. Second cancers and Richter transformation are the leading causes of death in patients with trisomy 12 chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Clin Lymphoma Myeloma Leuk. 2015;15:420–427.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Solomon BM, Rabe KG, Slager SL, et al. Overall and cancer-specific survival of patients with breast, colon, kidney, and lung cancers with and without chronic lymphocytic leukemia: a SEER population-based study. J Clin Oncol. 2013;31:930–937.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shanafelt TD, Drake MT, Maurer MJ, et al. Vitamin D insufficiency and prognosis in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Blood. 2011;117:1492–1498.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kennel KA, Drake MT, Hurley DL. Vitamin D deficiency in adults: when to test and how to treat. Mayo Clin Proc. 2010;85:752–758. quiz 7-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar