References
- Papers of special note have been highlighted as:
- • of interest
- •• of considerable interest
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•This review describes the attempts to modify the composition or the route of administration of the inactivated influenza vaccine in pediatric population in order to increase the protective efficacy against influenza
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- Jefferson T, Jones M, Doshi P, et al. Oseltamivir for influenza in adults and children: systematic review of clinical study reports and summary of regulatory comments. BMJ. 2014;348:g2545.
- Jones M, Jefferson T, Doshi P, et al. Commentary on Cochrane review of neuraminidase inhibitors for preventing and treating influenza in healthy adults and children. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2015;21:217–221.
•• A review that showed how in recent years there has been much debate and controversy surrounding the efficacy and safety of neuraminidase inhibitors for influenza, in part because the data underlying certain efficacy claims were not available for independent scrutiny. After a protracted campaign to obtain the reports, the manufacturers of the medications provided them unconditionally. The review authors subsequently published the underlying documents simultaneously with the Cochrane review, endorsing the concept of open science
- Gubareva LV, Kaiser L, Hayden FG. Influenza virus neuraminidase inhibitors. Lancet. 2000;355:827–835.
- Mendel DB, Tai CY, Escarpe PA, et al. Oral administration of a prodrug of the influenza virus neuraminidase inhibitor GS 4071 protects mice and ferrets against influenza infection. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1998;42:640–646.
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- Kawai N, Ikematsu H, Hirotsu N, et al. Clinical effectiveness of oseltamivir and zanamivir for treatment of influenza A virus subtype H1N1 with the H274Y mutation: a Japanese, multicenter study of the 2007–2008 and 2008–2009 influenza seasons. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;49:1828–1835.
- Tamura D, DeBiasi RL, Okomo-Adhiambo M, et al. Emergence of multidrug-resistant Influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 virus variants in an immunocompromised child treated with oseltamivir and zanamivir. J Infect Dis. 2015;212:1209–1213.
•A report showing that prolonged treatment of an immunocompromised child with oseltamivir and zanamivir for A(H1N1)pdm09 virus infection led to the emergence of viruses carrying H275Y and/or E119G in the neuraminidase. When phenotypically evaluated by NA inhibition, the dual H275Y-E119G substitution caused highly reduced inhibition by four NA inhibitors: oseltamivir, zanamivir, peramivir, and laninamivir
- Esposito S, Molteni CG, Colombo C, et al. Oseltamivir-induced resistant pandemic A/H1N1 influenza virus in a child with cystic fibrosis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection. J Clin Virol. 2010;48:62–65.
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- Kiso M, Mitamura K, Sakai-Tagawa YS, et al. Resistant influenza A viruses in children treated with oseltamivir: descriptive study. Lancet. 2004;364:759–765.9.
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- Oo C, Hill G, Dorr A, et al. Pharmacokinetics of anti-influenza prodrug oseltamivir in children aged 1–5 years. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2003;59:411–415.
- Ison MG. Antivirals and resistance: influenza virus. Curr Opin Virol. 2011;1:563–573.
- Davies BE. Pharmacokinetics of oseltamivir: an oral antiviral for the treatment and prophylaxis of influenza in diverse populations. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2010;65(Suppl 2):ii5–ii10.
- Poirier A, Belli S, Funk C, et al. Role of the intestinal peptide transporter PEPT1 in oseltamivir absorption: in vitro and in vivo studies. Drug Metab Dispos. 2012;40:1556–1565.
- Snell P, Dave N, Wilson K, et al. Lack of effect of moderate hepatic impairment on the pharmacokinetics of oral oseltamivir and its metabolite oseltamivir carboxylate. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2005;59:598–601.
- Dutkowski R, Thakrar B, Froehlich E, et al. Safety and pharmacology of oseltamivir in clinical use. Drug Saf. 2003;26:787–801.
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- Kurowski M, Oo C, Wiltshire H, et al. Oseltamivir distributes to influenza virus replication sites in the middle ear and sinuses. Clin Drug Invest. 2004;24:49–53.
- Ogihara T, Kano T, Wagatsuma T, et al. Oseltamivir (Tamiflu) is a substrate of peptide transporter 1. Drug Metab Dispos. 2009;37:1676–1681.
- Kearns GL, Abdel-Rahman SM, Alander SW, et al. Developmental pharmacology: drug disposition, action, and therapy in infants and children. N Engl J Med. 2003;349:1157–1167.
- Acosta EP, Jester P, Gal P, et al. Oseltamivir dosing for influenza infection in premature neonates. J Infect Dis. 2010;202:563–566.
- Kimberlin DW, Acosta EP, Prichard MN, et al. Oseltamivir pharmacokinetics, dosing, and resistance among children aged <2 years with influenza. J Infect Dis. 2013;207:709–720.
- Schreuder MF, van der Flier M, Knops NB, et al. Oseltamivir dosing in children undergoing hemodialysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;50:1427–1428.
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Influenza antiviral medications: summary for clinicians [cited 2015 Sep 18]. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/flu/professionals/antivirals/summary-clinicians.htm.
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- Johnston SL, Ferrero F, Garcia ML, et al. Oral oseltamivir improves pulmonary function and reduces exacerbation frequency for influenza-infected children with asthma. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2005;24:225–232.
- Wang K, Shun-Shin M, Gill P, et al. Neuraminidase inhibitors for preventing and treating influenza in children (published trials only). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;4:CD002744.
- Heinonen S, Silvennoinen H, Lehtinen P, et al. Early oseltamivir treatment of influenza in children 1–3 years of age: a randomized controlled trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;51:887–894.
- Karadag-Oncel E, Ceyhan M. Oseltamivir in neonates, infants and young children: a focus on clinical pharmacology. Infect Dis Drug Target. 2013;13:15–24.
- Sato M, Hosoya M, Kato K, et al. Viral shedding in children with influenza virus infections treated with neuraminidase inhibitors. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2005;24:931–932.
- Garg S, Fry AM, Patton M, et al. Antiviral treatment of influenza in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2012;3:e43–e51.
- Piedra PA, Schulman KL, Blumentals WA. Effects of oseltamivir on influenza-related complications in children with chronic medical conditions. Pediatrics. 2009;124:170–178.
- Louie JK, Gavali S, Acosta M, et al. Children hospitalized with 2009 novel influenza A(H1N1) in California. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2010;164:1023–1031.
- Muthuri SG, Venkatesan S, Myles PR, et al. Effectiveness of neuraminidase inhibitors in reducing mortality in patients admitted to hospital with influenza A H1N1pdm09 virus infection: a meta-analysis of individual participant data. Lancet Respir Med. 2014;2:395–404.
•In this meta-analysis, the authors showed that compared with no treatment, neuraminidase inhibitor treatment (irrespective of timing) was associated with a reduction in mortality risk. Compared with later treatment, early treatment (within 2 days of symptom onset) was associated with a reduction in mortality. Early treatment versus no treatment was also associated with a reduction in mortality. These associations with reduced mortality risk were less pronounced and not significant in children. There was an increase in the mortality hazard rate with each day’s delay in initiation of treatment up to day 5 as compared with treatment initiated within 2 days of symptom onset
- Farias JA, Fernández A, Monteverde E, et al. Critically ill infants and children with influenza A (H1N1) in pediatric intensive care units in Argentina. Intensive Care Med. 2010;36:1015–1022.
- Hayden FG, Belshe R, Villanueva C, et al. Management of influenza in households: prospective randomized comparison of oseltamivir treatment with or without postexposure prophylaxis. J Infect Dis. 2004;189:440–449.
- Maltezou HC, Drakoulis N, Siahanidou T, et al. Safety and pharmacokinetics of oseltamivir for prophylaxis of neonates exposed to influenza H1N1. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2012;31:527–529.
- Marois I, Cloutier A, Garneau É, et al. The administration of oseltamivir results in reduced effector and memory CD8+ T cell responses to influenza and affects protective immunity. FASEB J. 2015;29:973–987.
•By use of flow cytometric analyses and the mouse model, this study demonstrated that antiviral treatment affects the development of the adaptive immune response and protective immunity against influenza
- Whitley RJ, Hayden FG, Reisinger KS, et al. Oral oseltamivir treatment of influenza in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2001;20:127–133.
- Rath BA, Blumentals WA, Miller MK, et al. A prospective observational study of oseltamivir safety and tolerability in infants and young children ≤24 months. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2015;24:286–296.
•In this prospective open-label observational safety study, children aged ≤24 months with a clinical diagnosis of influenza in routine practice received either no antiviral treatment or oseltamivir treatment or prophylaxis, according to the physician’s judgment. Adverse events were analyzed in 1065 patients and it was shown that oseltamivir has a good tolerability profile in this population
- Kitching A, Roche A, Balasegaram S, et al. Oseltamivir adherence and side effects among children in three London schools affected by influenza A(H1N1)v, May 2009 – an internet-based cross-sectional survey. Euro Surveill. 2009;14:19287.
- Rath BA, Brzostek J, Guillén S, et al. Safety, virology and pharmacokinetics of oseltamivir in infants with laboratory-confirmed influenza: a phase I/II, prospective, open-label, multicentre clinical trial. Antivir Ther. 2015. DOI:10.3851/IMP2967. [Epub ahead of print].
•In this prospective, observational, non-randomized study, infants aged <1 year with laboratory-confirmed influenza were treated with oral oseltamivir for 5 days with twice-daily dosages of 3, 2.5 and 2 mg/kg. Authors showed that oseltamivir dosages of 2–3 mg/kg were well tolerated in infants aged <1 year and achieved therapeutic exposure levels
- Morishima T, Togashi T, Yokota S, et al. Encephalitis and encephalopathy associated with an influenza epidemic in Japan. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;35:512–517.
- Toovey S, Prinssen EP, Rayner CR, et al. Post-marketing assessment of neuropsychiatric adverse events in influenza patients treated with oseltamivir: an updated review. Adv Ther. 2012;29:826–848.
- Fiore AE, Fry A, Shay D, et al. Antiviral agents for the treatment and chemoprophylaxis of influenza: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep. 2011;60:1–24.
- Peaper DR, Landry ML. Rapid diagnosis of influenza: state of the art. Clin Lab Med. 2014;34:365–385.
- Zhang H, Wang L, Compans RW, et al. Universal influenza vaccines, a dream to be realized soon. Viruses. 2014;6:1974–1991.