Immunopathogenesis of allergic disorders: current concepts

References

• von Pirquet C. Allergy. In: Clinical Aspects of Immunology. Gell PGH, Coombs RRA (Eds). Blackwell Scientific, Oxford, UK (1963).
   Google Scholar
• Kay AB. Allergy and allergic diseases. First of two parts. N. Engl. J. Med. 344(1), 30–37 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akdis CA. Allergy and hypersensitivity: mechanisms of allergic disease. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 18(6), 718–726 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murphy K, Travers P, Walport M. Allergy and hypersensitivity. In: Janeway’s Immunobiology (17th Edition). Garland Science, Taylor & Francis Group, Abingdon, UK (2008).
   Google Scholar
• The International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC) Steering Committee. Worldwide variation in prevalence of symptoms of asthma, allergic rhinoconjunctivitis, and atopic eczema: ISAAC. Lancet 351(9111), 1225–1232 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• Busse WW. The role of allergy in disease. Immunol. Rev. 242(1), 5–9 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asher MI, Montefort S, Björkstén B et al.; ISAAC Phase Three Study Group. Worldwide time trends in the prevalence of symptoms of asthma, allergic rhinoconjunctivitis, and eczema in childhood: ISAAC Phases One and Three repeat multicountry cross-sectional surveys. Lancet 368(9537), 733–743 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paramesh H. Epidemiology of asthma in India. Indian J. Pediatr. 69(4), 309–312 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yazdanbakhsh M, Kremsner PG, van Ree R. Allergy, parasites, and the hygiene hypothesis. Science 296(5567), 490–494 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frei R, Lauener RP, Crameri R, O’Mahony L. Microbiota and dietary interactions: an update to the hygiene hypothesis? Allergy 67(4), 451–461 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalliomäki M, Kirjavainen P, Eerola E, Kero P, Salminen S, Isolauri E. Distinct patterns of neonatal gut microflora in infants in whom atopy was and was not developing. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 107(1), 129–134 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wickens K, Pearce N, Crane J, Beasley R. Antibiotic use in early childhood and the development of asthma. Clin. Exp. Allergy 29(6), 766–771 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van den Biggelaar AH, van Ree R, Rodrigues LC et al. Decreased atopy in children infected with Schistosoma haematobium: a role for parasite-induced interleukin-10. Lancet 356(9243), 1723–1727 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dickey BF. Exoskeletons and exhalation. N. Engl. J. Med. 357(20), 2082–2084 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wallmann J, Pali-Schöll I, Jensen-Jarolim E. Anti-Ids in allergy: timeliness of a classic concept. World Allergy Organ. J. 3(6), 195–201 (2010).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gould HJ, Sutton BJ, Beavil AJ et al. The biology of IGE and the basis of allergic disease. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 21, 579–628 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martino DJ, Prescott SL. Silent mysteries: epigenetic paradigms could hold the key to conquering the epidemic of allergy and immune disease. Allergy 65(1), 7–15 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prescott S, Saffery R. The role of epigenetic dysregulation in the epidemic of allergic disease. Clin. Epigenetics 2(2), 223–232 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brand S, Kesper DA, Teich R et al. DNA methylation of TH1/TH2 cytokine genes affects sensitization and progress of experimental asthma. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 129(6), 1602.e6–1610.e6 (2012).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson CB, Rowell E, Sekimata M. Epigenetic control of T-helper-cell differentiation. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 9(2), 91–105 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conrad ML, Ferstl R, Teich R et al. Maternal TLR signaling is required for prenatal asthma protection by the nonpathogenic microbe Acinetobacter lwoffii F78. J. Exp. Med. 206(13), 2869–2877 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kitaura J, Song J, Tsai M et al. Evidence that IgE molecules mediate a spectrum of effects on mast cell survival and activation via aggregation of the FcepsilonRI. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 100(22), 12911–12916 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bax HJ, Keeble AH, Gould HJ. Cytokinergic IgE action in mast cell activation. Front. Immunol. 3, 229 (2012).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kawakami T, Kitaura J. Mast cell survival and activation by IgE in the absence of antigen: a consideration of the biologic mechanisms and relevance. J. Immunol. 175(7), 4167–4173 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hackett TL, Singhera GK, Shaheen F et al. Intrinsic phenotypic differences of asthmatic epithelium and its inflammatory responses to respiratory syncytial virus and air pollution. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 45(5), 1090–1100 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gould HJ, Sutton BJ. IgE in allergy and asthma today. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 8(3), 205–217 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reber L, Da Silva CA, Frossard N. Stem cell factor and its receptor c-Kit as targets for inflammatory diseases. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 533(1–3), 327–340 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Veres TZ, Voedisch S, Spies E, Tschernig T, Braun A. Spatiotemporal and functional behavior of airway dendritic cells visualized by two-photon microscopy. Am. J. Pathol. 179(2), 603–609 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blank F, Wehrli M, Lehmann A et al. Macrophages and dendritic cells express tight junction proteins and exchange particles in an in vitro model of the human airway wall. Immunobiology 216(1–2), 86–95 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hammad H, Lambrecht BN. Dendritic cells and epithelial cells: linking innate and adaptive immunity in asthma. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 8(3), 193–204 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barnes PJ. Immunology of asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 8(3), 183–192 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lambrecht BN, Hammad H. The role of dendritic and epithelial cells as master regulators of allergic airway inflammation. Lancet 376(9743), 835–843 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer EH, Goya S, Akbari O et al. Glycolipid activation of invariant T cell receptor+ NK T cells is sufficient to induce airway hyperreactivity independent of conventional CD4+ T cells. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 103(8), 2782–2787 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kassianos AJ, Jongbloed SL, Hart DN, Radford KJ. Isolation of human blood DC subtypes. Methods Mol. Biol. 595, 45–54 (2010).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Louten J, Boniface K, de Waal Malefyt R. Development and function of TH17 cells in health and disease. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 123(5), 1004–1011 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akbari O, Faul JL, Hoyte EG et al. CD4+ invariant T-cell-receptor+ natural killer T cells in bronchial asthma. N. Engl. J. Med. 354(11), 1117–1129 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erpenbeck VJ, Hohlfeld JM, Volkmann B et al. Segmental allergen challenge in patients with atopic asthma leads to increased IL-9 expression in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid lymphocytes. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 111(6), 1319–1327 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bryce PJ. Revolution 9: the backwards and forwards evidence surrounding interleukin-9. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 183(7), 834–835 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nembrini C, Marsland BJ, Kopf M. IL-17-producing T cells in lung immunity and inflammation. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 123(5), 986–94; quiz 995 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neill DR, Wong SH, Bellosi A et al. Nuocytes represent a new innate effector leukocyte that mediates type-2 immunity. Nature 464(7293), 1367–1370 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Veldhoen M, Uyttenhove C, van Snick J et al. Transforming growth factor-β ‘reprograms’ the differentiation of T helper 2 cells and promotes an interleukin 9-producing subset. Nat. Immunol. 9(12), 1341–1346 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akdis CA, Akdis M. Mechanisms of allergen-specific immunotherapy. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 127(1), 18–27; quiz 28 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schaub B, Liu J, Höppler S et al. Maternal farm exposure modulates neonatal immune mechanisms through regulatory T cells. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 123(4), 774.e5–782.e5 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Liew FY, Pitman NI, McInnes IB. Disease-associated functions of IL-33: the new kid in the IL-1 family. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 10(2), 103–110 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drolet JP, Frangie H, Guay J, Hajoui O, Hamid Q, Mazer BD. B lymphocytes in inflammatory airway diseases. Clin. Exp. Allergy 40(6), 841–849 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prussin C, Metcalfe DD. 5. IgE, mast cells, basophils, and eosinophils. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 117(2 Suppl. Mini-Primer), S450–S456 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Humbles AA, Lloyd CM, McMillan SJ et al. A critical role for eosinophils in allergic airways remodeling. Science 305(5691), 1776–1779 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marone G, Triggiani M, de Paulis A. Mast cells and basophils: friends as well as foes in bronchial asthma? Trends Immunol. 26(1), 25–31 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alcorn JF, Crowe CR, Kolls JK. TH17 cells in asthma and COPD. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 72, 495–516 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sampson AP. The role of eosinophils and neutrophils in inflammation. Clin. Exp. Allergy 30(Suppl. 1), 22–27 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ziegler SF, Artis D. Sensing the outside world: TSLP regulates barrier immunity. Nat. Immunol. 11(4), 289–293 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kurowska-Stolarska M, Hueber A, Stolarski B, McInnes IB. Interleukin-33: a novel mediator with a role in distinct disease pathologies. J. Intern. Med. 269(1), 29–35 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alam R. Chemokines in allergic inflammation. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 99(3), 273–277 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hassan M, Jo T, Risse PA et al. Airway smooth muscle remodeling is a dynamic process in severe long-standing asthma. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 125(5), 1037.e3–1045.e3 (2010).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paredi P, Barnes PJ. The airway vasculature: recent advances and clinical implications. Thorax 64(5), 444–450 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fahy JV, Dickey BF. Airway mucus function and dysfunction. N. Engl. J. Med. 363(23), 2233–2247 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen G, Korfhagen TR, Xu Y et al. SPDEF is required for mouse pulmonary goblet cell differentiation and regulates a network of genes associated with mucus production. J. Clin. Invest. 119(10), 2914–2924 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barnes PJ. Pathophysiology of allergic inflammation. Immunol. Rev. 242(1), 31–50 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holgate ST. The epidemic of allergy and asthma. Nature 402(Suppl. 6760), B2–B4 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agache I, Akdis C, Jutel M, Virchow JC. Untangling asthma phenotypes and endotypes. Allergy 67(7), 835–846 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wenzel SE. Asthma phenotypes: the evolution from clinical to molecular approaches. Nat. Med. 18(5), 716–725 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hallstrand TS, Moody MW, Aitken ML, Henderson WR Jr. Airway immunopathology of asthma with exercise-induced bronchoconstriction. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 116(3), 586–593 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore WC, Meyers DA, Wenzel SE et al.; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute’s Severe Asthma Research Program. Identification of asthma phenotypes using cluster analysis in the Severe Asthma Research Program. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 181(4), 315–323 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miranda C, Busacker A, Balzar S, Trudeau J, Wenzel SE. Distinguishing severe asthma phenotypes: role of age at onset and eosinophilic inflammation. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 113(1), 101–108 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lajoie S, Lewkowich IP, Suzuki Y et al. Complement-mediated regulation of the IL-17A axis is a central genetic determinant of the severity of experimental allergic asthma. Nat. Immunol. 11(10), 928–935 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eiwegger T, Akdis CA. IL-33 links tissue cells, dendritic cells and Th2 cell development in a mouse model of asthma. Eur. J. Immunol. 41(6), 1535–1538 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doe C, Bafadhel M, Siddiqui S et al. Expression of the T helper 17-associated cytokines IL-17A and IL-17F in asthma and COPD. Chest 138(5), 1140–1147 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laidlaw TM, Kidder MS, Bhattacharyya N et al. Cysteinyl leukotriene overproduction in aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease is driven by platelet-adherent leukocytes. Blood 119(16), 3790–3798 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karjalainen EM, Laitinen A, Sue-Chu M, Altraja A, Bjermer L, Laitinen LA. Evidence of airway inflammation and remodeling in ski athletes with and without bronchial hyperresponsiveness to methacholine. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 161(6), 2086–2091 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bisgaard H, Bønnelykke K. Long-term studies of the natural history of asthma in childhood. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 126(2), 187–97; quiz 198 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim HY, DeKruyff RH, Umetsu DT. The many paths to asthma: phenotype shaped by innate and adaptive immunity. Nat. Immunol. 11(7), 577–584 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hammad H, Plantinga M, Deswarte K et al. Inflammatory dendritic cells – not basophils – are necessary and sufficient for induction of Th2 immunity to inhaled house dust mite allergen. J. Exp. Med. 207(10), 2097–2111 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dixon AE, Pratley RE, Forgione PM et al. Effects of obesity and bariatric surgery on airway hyperresponsiveness, asthma control, and inflammation. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 128(3), 508.e1–515.e1 (2011).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burns P, Powe DG, Jones NS. Idiopathic rhinitis. Curr. Opin. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 20(1), 1–8 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bousquet J, Schünemann HJ, Samolinski B et al.; World Health Organization Collaborating Center for Asthma and Rhinitis. Allergic Rhinitis and its Impact on Asthma (ARIA): achievements in 10 years and future needs. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 130(5), 1049–1062 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bousquet J, Van Cauwenberge P, Khaltaev N; Aria Workshop Group; World Health Organization. Allergic rhinitis and its impact on asthma. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 108(Suppl. 5), S147–S334 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Powe DG, Jagger C, Kleinjan A, Carney AS, Jenkins D, Jones NS. ‘Entopy’: localized mucosal allergic disease in the absence of systemic responses for atopy. Clin. Exp. Allergy 33(10), 1374–1379 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Powe DG, Jones NS. Local mucosal immunoglobulin E production: does allergy exist in non-allergic rhinitis? Clin. Exp. Allergy 36(11), 1367–1372 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holgate ST. Innate and adaptive immune responses in asthma. Nat. Med. 18(5), 673–683 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bieber T. Atopic dermatitis 2.0: from the clinical phenotype to the molecular taxonomy and stratified medicine. Allergy 67(12), 1475–1482 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Butler M, Atherton D, Levinsky RJ. Quantitative and functional deficit of suppressor T cells in children with atopic eczema. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 50(1), 92–98 (1982).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sloper KS, Wadsworth J, Brostoff J. Children with atopic eczema. II: immunological findings associated with dietary manipulations. Q. J. Med. 80(292), 695–705 (1991).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Werfel T, Breuer K. Role of food allergy in atopic dermatitis. Curr. Opin. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 4(5), 379–385 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hadis U, Wahl B, Schulz O et al. Intestinal tolerance requires gut homing and expansion of FoxP3+ regulatory T cells in the lamina propria. Immunity 34(2), 237–246 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corazza N, Kaufmann T. Novel insights into mechanisms of food allergy and allergic airway inflammation using experimental mouse models. Allergy 67(12), 1483–1490 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smit JJ, Bol-Schoenmakers M, Hassing I et al. The role of intestinal dendritic cells subsets in the establishment of food allergy. Clin. Exp. Allergy 41(6), 890–898 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Järvinen KM, Sicherer SH. Diagnostic oral food challenges: procedures and biomarkers. J. Immunol. Methods 383(1–2), 30–38 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geuking MB, Cahenzli J, Lawson MA et al. Intestinal bacterial colonization induces mutualistic regulatory T cell responses. Immunity 34(5), 794–806 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cardoso CR, Teixeira G, Provinciatto PR et al. Modulation of mucosal immunity in a murine model of food-induced intestinal inflammation. Clin. Exp. Allergy 38(2), 338–349 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pichler WJ. Drug hypersensitivity reactions: classification and relationship to T cell activation. In: Drug Hypersensitivity. Karger, Basel, Switzerland, 168–189 (2007).
   Google Scholar
• Doña I, Blanca-López N, Torres MJ et al. Drug hypersensitivity reactions: response patterns, drug involved, and temporal variations in a large series of patients. J. Investig. Allergol. Clin. Immunol. 22(5), 363–371 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sampson HA, Muñoz-Furlong A, Bock SA et al. Symposium on the definition and management of anaphylaxis: summary report. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 115(3), 584–591 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simons FE. Anaphylaxis pathogenesis and treatment. Allergy 66(Suppl. 95), 31–34 (2011).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Simons FE. Anaphylaxis. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 125(2 Suppl. 2), S161–S181 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simons KJ, Simons FE. Epinephrine and its use in anaphylaxis: current issues. Curr. Opin. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 10(4), 354–361 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finkelman FD. Anaphylaxis: lessons from mouse models. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 120(3), 506–15; quiz 516 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paul WE, Zhu J. How are T(H)2-type immune responses initiated and amplified? Nat. Rev. Immunol. 10(4), 225–235 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saenz SA, Siracusa MC, Perrigoue JG et al. IL25 elicits a multipotent progenitor cell population that promotes T(H)2 cytokine responses. Nature 464(7293), 1362–1366 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang YH, Angkasekwinai P, Lu N et al. IL-25 augments type 2 immune responses by enhancing the expansion and functions of TSLP-DC-activated Th2 memory cells. J. Exp. Med. 204(8), 1837–1847 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu TX, Hartner J, Lim EJ et al. MicroRNA-21 limits in vivo immune response-mediated activation of the IL-12/IFN-γ pathway, Th1 polarization, and the severity of delayed-type hypersensitivity. J. Immunol. 187(6), 3362–3373 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herrick CA, Bottomly K. To respond or not to respond: T cells in allergic asthma. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 3(5), 405–412 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marshall JS. Mast-cell responses to pathogens. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 4(10), 787–799 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilfillan AM, Tkaczyk C. Integrated signalling pathways for mast-cell activation. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 6(3), 218–230 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohn L, Elias JA, Chupp GL. Asthma: mechanisms of disease persistence and progression. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 22, 789–815 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holgate ST. Epithelium dysfunction in asthma. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 120(6), 1233–1244; quiz 1245 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ober C, Hoffjan S. Asthma genetics 2006: the long and winding road to gene discovery. Genes Immun. 7(2), 95–100 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baldini M, Lohman IC, Halonen M, Erickson RP, Holt PG, Martinez FD. A Polymorphism* in the 5’ flanking region of the CD14 gene is associated with circulating soluble CD14 levels and with total serum immunoglobulin E. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 20(5), 976–983 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eder W, Klimecki W, Yu L et al.; ALEX Study Team. Toll-like receptor 2 as a major gene for asthma in children of European farmers. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 113(3), 482–488 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hysi P, Kabesch M, Moffatt MF et al. NOD1 variation, immunoglobulin E and asthma. Hum. Mol. Genet. 14(7), 935–941 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vercelli D. Discovering susceptibility genes for asthma and allergy. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 8(3), 169–182 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vercelli D. Learning from discrepancies: CD14 polymorphisms, atopy and the endotoxin switch. Clin. Exp. Allergy 33(2), 153–155 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hobbs K, Negri J, Klinnert M, Rosenwasser LJ, Borish L. Interleukin-10 and transforming growth factor-β promoter polymorphisms in allergies and asthma. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 158(6), 1958–1962 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silverman ES, Palmer LJ, Subramaniam V et al. Transforming growth factor-β 1 promoter polymorphism C-509T is associated with asthma. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 169(2), 214–219 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Litonjua AA, Tantisira KG, Lake S et al. Polymorphisms in signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 and lung function in asthma. Respir. Res. 6, 52 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finkelman FD, Vercelli D. Advances in asthma, allergy mechanisms, and genetics in 2006. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 120(3), 544–550 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu H, Romieu I, Shi M et al. Evaluation of candidate genes in a genome-wide association study of childhood asthma in Mexicans. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 125(2), 321–327.e13 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mathias RA, Grant AV, Rafaels N et al. A genome-wide association study on African-ancestry populations for asthma. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 125(2), 336–346.e4 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schedel M, Carr D, Klopp N et al. A signal transducer and activator of transcription 6 haplotype influences the regulation of serum IgE levels. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 114(5), 1100–1105 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kabesch M, Tzotcheva I, Carr D et al. A complete screening of the IL4 gene: novel polymorphisms and their association with asthma and IgE in childhood. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 112(5), 893–898 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loza MJ, Chang BL. Association between Q551R IL4R genetic variants and atopic asthma risk demonstrated by meta-analysis. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 120(3), 578–585 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palmer CN, Ismail T, Lee SP et al. Filaggrin null mutations are associated with increased asthma severity in children and young adults. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 120(1), 64–68 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Söderhäll C, Marenholz I, Kerscher T et al. Variants in a novel epidermal collagen gene (COL29A1) are associated with atopic dermatitis. PLoS Biol. 5(9), e242 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chavanas S, Bodemer C, Rochat A et al. Mutations in SPINK5, encoding a serine protease inhibitor, cause Netherton syndrome. Nat. Genet. 25(2), 141–142 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Eerdewegh P, Little RD, Dupuis J et al. Association of the ADAM33 gene with asthma and bronchial hyperresponsiveness. Nature 418(6896), 426–430 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balaci L, Spada MC, Olla N et al. IRAK-M is involved in the pathogenesis of early-onset persistent asthma. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 80(6), 1103–1114 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vercelli D. Genetics and biology of asthma 2010: La’ ci darem la mano. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 125(2), 347–348 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bloemen K, Verstraelen S, Van Den Heuvel R, Witters H, Nelissen I, Schoeters G. The allergic cascade: review of the most important molecules in the asthmatic lung. Immunol. Lett. 113(1), 6–18 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar