42
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Primary aldosteronism: an update

&
Pages 389-402 | Published online: 10 Jan 2014

References

  • Lawes CM, Vander HS, Rodgers A; International Society of Hypertension Global burden of blood-pressure-related disease, 2001. Lancet371(9623), 1513–1518 (2008).
  • Vasan RS, Evans JC, Larson MG et al. Serum aldosterone and the incidence of hypertension in nonhypertensive persons. N. Engl. J. Med.351(1), 33–41 (2004).
  • Reynolds RM, Walker BR, Phillips DI et al. Programming of hypertension: associations of plasma aldosterone in adult men and women with birthweight, cortisol, and blood pressure. Hypertension53(6), 932–936 (2009).
  • Newton-Cheh C, Guo CY, Gona P et al. Clinical and genetic correlates of aldosterone-to-renin ratio and relations to blood pressure in a community sample. Hypertension49(4), 846–856 (2007).
  • Young WF. Primary aldosteronism: renaissance of a syndrome. Clin. Endocrinol.66(5), 607–618 (2007).
  • Hiramatsu K, Yamada T, Yukimura Y et al. A screening test to identify aldosterone-producing adenoma by measuring plasma renin activity. Results in hypertensive patients. Arch. Intern. Med.141(12), 1589–1593 (1981).
  • Gordon RD, Stowasser M, Tunny TJ, Klemm SA, Rutherford JC. High incidence of primary aldosteronism in 199 patients referred with hypertension. Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. P21(4), 315–318 (1994).
  • Abdelhamid S, Muller-Lobeck H, Pahl S et al. Prevalence of adrenal and extra-adrenal Conn syndrome in hypertensive patients. Arch. Intern. Med.156(11), 1190–1195 (1996).
  • Lim PO, Rodgers P, Cardale K, Watson AD, Macdonald TM. Potentially high prevalence of primary aldosteronism in a primary-care population. Lancet353(9146), 40 (1999).
  • Fardella CE, Mosso L, Gomez-Sanchez C et al. Primary hyperaldosteronism in essential hypertensives: prevalence, biochemical profile, and molecular biology. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.85(5), 1863–1867 (2000).
  • Rayner BL, Opie LH, Davidson JS. The aldosterone/renin ratio as a screening test for primary aldosteronism. S. Afr. Med. J.90(4), 394–400 (2000).
  • Schwartz GL, Chapman AB, Boerwinkle E, Kisabeth RM, Turner ST. Screening for primary aldosteronism: implications of an increased plasma aldosterone/renin ratio. Clin. Chem.48(11), 1919–1923 (2002).
  • Calhoun DA, Nishizaka MK, Zaman MA, Thakkar RB, Weissmann P. Hyperaldosteronism among black and white subjects with resistant hypertension Hypertension40(6), 892–896 (2002).
  • Olivieri O, Ciacciarelli A, Signorelli D et al. Aldosterone to Renin ratio in a primary care setting: the Bussolengo study. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.89(9), 4221–4226 (2004).
  • Rossi GP, Bernini G, Caliumi C et al. A prospective study of the prevalence of primary aldosteronism in 1,125 hypertensive patients. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.48(11), 2293–2300 (2006).
  • Douma S, Petidis K, Doumas M et al. Prevalence of primary hyperaldosteronism in resistant hypertension: a retrospective observational study. Lancet371(9628), 1921–1926 (2008).
  • Conn J. Plasma renin activity in primary aldosteronism. Importance in differential diagnosis and in research of essential hypertension. JAMA90, 222–225 (1964).
  • Stowasser M. How common is adrenal-based mineralocorticoid hypertension? Curr. Opin. Enocrinol. Diabetes7, 143–150 (2000).
  • Lifton RP, Dluhy RG, Powers M et al. A chimaeric 11 β-hydroxylase/aldosterone synthase gene causes glucocorticoid-remediable aldosteronism and human hypertension Nature355(6357), 262–265 (1992).
  • Sukor N, Mulatero P, Gordon RD et al. Further evidence for linkage of familial hyperaldosteronism type II at chromosome 7p22 in Italian as well as Australian and South American families. J. Hypertens.26(8), 1577–1582 (2008).
  • Geller DS, Zhang J, Wisgerhof MV, Shackleton C, Kashgarian M, Lifton RP. A novel form of human mendelian hypertension featuring nonglucocorticoid-remediable aldosteronism. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.93(8), 3117–3123 (2008).
  • Connell JM, MacKenzie SM, Freel EM, Fraser R, Davies E. A lifetime of aldosterone excess: long-term consequences of altered regulation of aldosterone production for cardiovascular function. Endocr. Rev.29(2), 133–154 (2008).
  • Davies DL, Beretta-Piccoli C, Brown JJ et al. Body sodium and blood pressure: abnormal and different correlations in Conn’s syndrome, renal artery stenosis and essential hypertension. P. Eur. Dial. Trans.20, 483–488 (1983).
  • Duprez D, De Buyzere M, Rietzschel ER, Clement DL. Aldosterone and vascular damage. Curr. Hypertens. Rep.2(3), 327–334 (2000).
  • Funder JW. Steroids, hypertension and cardiac fibrosis. Blood Press. Suppl.2, 39–42 (1995).
  • Young M, Funder JW. Aldosterone and the heart. Trends Endocrin. Met.11(6), 224–226 (2000).
  • Savoia C, Touyz RM, Amiri F, Schiffrin EL. Selective mineralocorticoid receptor blocker eplerenone reduces resistance artery stiffness in hypertensive patients. Hypertension51(2), 432–439 (2008).
  • Rossi GP, Bolognesi M, Rizzoni D et al. Vascular remodeling and duration of hypertension predict outcome of adrenalectomy in primary aldosteronism patients. Hypertension51(5), 1366–1371 (2008).
  • Funder JW. Corticosteroid receptors and the central nervous system. J. Steroid. Biochem.49(4–6), 381–384 (1994).
  • Gomez-Sanchez EP. Intracerebroventricular infusion of aldosterone induces hypertension in rats. Endocrinology118(2), 819–823 (1986).
  • Young WF Jr. Minireview: primary aldosteronism – changing concepts in diagnosis and treatment. Endocrinology144(6), 2208–2213 (2003).
  • Weber KT, Janicki JS, Pick R, Capasso J, Anversa P. Myocardial fibrosis and pathologic hypertrophy in the rat with renovascular hypertension Am. J. Cardiol.65(14), 1G–7G (1990).
  • Weber KT, Brilla CG. Pathological hypertrophy and cardiac interstitium. Fibrosis and rennin–angiotensin–aldosterone system. Circulation83(6), 1849–1865 (1991).
  • Williams JS, Williams GH. 50th anniversary of aldosterone. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.88(6), 2364–2372 (2003).
  • White PC. Aldosterone: direct effects on and production by the heart. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.88(6), 2376–2383 (2003).
  • Brilla CG, Weber KT. Reactive and reparative myocardial fibrosis in arterial hypertension in the rat. Cardiovasc. Res.26(7), 671–671(1992).
  • Keidar S, Kaplan M, Pavlotzky E et al. Aldosterone administration to mice stimulates macrophage NADPH oxidase and increases atherosclerosis development: a possible role for angiotensin-converting enzyme and the receptors for angiotensin II and aldosterone. Circulation109(18), 2213–2220 (2004).
  • Duprez DA, De Buyzere ML, Rietzschel ER et al. Inverse relationship between aldosterone and large artery compliance in chronically treated heart failure patients. Eur. Heart J.19(9), 1371–1376 (1998).
  • Pitt B, Zannad F, Remme WJ et al. The effect of spironolactone on morbidity and mortality in patients with severe heart failure. Randomized Aldactone Evaluation Study Investigators. N. Engl. J. Med.341(10), 709–717 (1999).
  • Pitt B, Williams G, Remme W et al. The EPHESUS trial: eplerenone in patients with heart failure due to systolic dysfunction complicating acute myocardial infarction. Eplerenone Post-AMI Heart Failure Efficacy and Survival Study. Cardiovasc. Drug Ther.15(1), 79–87 (2001).
  • Beygui F, Collet JP, Benoliel JJ et al. High plasma aldosterone levels on admission are associated with death in patients presenting with acute ST-elevation myocardial infarction. Circulation114(24), 2604–2610 (2006).
  • Milliez P, Girerd X, Plouin PF, Blacher J, Safar ME, Mourad JJ. Evidence for an increased rate of cardiovascular events in patients with primary aldosteronism. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.45(8), 1243–1248 (2005).
  • Catena C, Colussi G, Nadalini E et al. Cardiovascular outcomes in patients with primary aldosteronism after treatment. Arch. Int. Med.168(1), 80–85 (2008).
  • Rossi GP, Sacchetto A, Pavan E et al. Remodeling of the left ventricle in primary aldosteronism due to Conn’s adenoma. Circulation95(6), 1471–1478 (1997).
  • Yoshihara F, Nishikimi T, Yoshitomi Y et al. Left ventricular structural and functional characteristics in patients with renovascular hypertension, primary aldosteronism and essential hypertension Am. J. Hyperten.9(6), 523–528 (1996).
  • Rocha R, Chander PN, Zuckerman A, Stier CT Jr. Role of aldosterone in renal vascular injury in stroke-prone hypertensive rats. Hypertension33(1 Pt 2), 232–237 (1999).
  • Fox CS, Larson MG, Hwang SJ et al. Cross-sectional relations of serum aldosterone and urine sodium excretion to urinary albumin excretion in a community-based sample. Kidney Int.69(11), 2064–2069 (2006).
  • Lai L, Chen J, Hao CM, Lin S, Gu Y. Aldosterone promotes fibronectin production through a Smad2-dependent TGF-β1 pathway in mesangial cells. Biochem. Bioph. Res. Co.348(1), 70–75 (2006).
  • Juknevicius I, Segal Y, Kren S, Lee R, Hostetter TH. Effect of aldosterone on renal transforming growth factor-β. Am. J. Physiol. – Renal286(6), F1059–F1062 (2004).
  • Miyata K, Rahman M, Shokoji T et al. Aldosterone stimulates reactive oxygen species production through activation of NADPH oxidase in rat mesangial cells. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol.16(10), 2906–2912 (2005).
  • Nagase M, Shibata S, Yoshida S, Nagase T, Gotoda T, Fujita T. Podocyte injury underlies the glomerulopathy of Dahl salt-hypertensive rats and is reversed by aldosterone blocker. Hypertension47(6), 1084–1093 (2006).
  • Aldigier JC, Kanjanbuch T, Ma LJ, Brown NJ, Fogo AB. Regression of existing glomerulosclerosis by inhibition of aldosterone. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol.16(11), 3306–3314 (2005).
  • Remuzzi G, Cattaneo D, Perico N. The aggravating mechanisms of aldosterone on kidney fibrosis. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol.19(8), 1459–1462 (2008).
  • Rossi GP, Bernini G, Desideri G et al. Renal damage in primary aldosteronism: results of the PAPY study. Hypertension48(2), 232–238 (2006).
  • Sechi LA, Novello M, Lapenna R et al. Long-term renal outcomes in patients with primary aldosteronism. JAMA295(22), 2638–2645 (2006).
  • Freel EM, Ingram M, Fraser R, Dominiczak AF, Davies E, Connell JM. Aldosterone and sodium excess associate with albuminuria and glomerular hyperfiltration in a severely hypertensive cohort from the MRC BRIGHT Study. Hypertension 54 abstract (2009).
  • Fallo F, Della MP, Sonino N et al. Adiponectin and insulin sensitivity in primary aldosteronism. Am. J. Hypertens.20(8), 855–861 (2007).
  • Colussi G, Catena C, Lapenna R, Nadalini E, Chiuch A, Sechi LA. Insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia are related to plasma aldosterone levels in hypertensive patients. Diabetes Care30(9), 2349–2354 (2007).
  • Luther JM, Gainer JV, Murphey LJ et al. Angiotensin II induces interleukin-6 in humans through a mineralocorticoid receptor-dependent mechanism. Hypertension48(6), 1050–1057 (2006).
  • Catena C, Lapenna R, Baroselli S et al. Insulin sensitivity in patients with primary aldosteronism: a follow-up study. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.91(9), 3457–3463 (2006).
  • Freel EM, Tsorlalis IK, Lewsey J et al. Aldosterone status associates with insulin resistance in patients with heart failure-data from the ALOFT study. Heart95, 1920–1924 (2009).
  • Funder JW, Carey RM, Fardella C et al. Case detection, diagnosis, and treatment of patients with primary aldosteronism: an endocrine society clinical practice guideline. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.93(9), 3266–3281 (2008).
  • Stowasser M, Gordon RD. Primary aldosteronism – careful investigation is essential and rewarding. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol.217(1–2), 33–39 (2004).
  • Alvarez-Madrazo S, Padmanabhan S, Mayosi BM et al. Familial and phenotypic associations of the aldosterone renin ratio. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.94, 4324–4333 (2009).
  • Mulatero P, Rabbia F, Milan A et al. Drug effects on aldosterone/plasma renin activity ratio in primary aldosteronism. Hypertension40(6), 897–902 (2002).
  • Hood S, Cannon J, Foo R, Brown M. Prevalence of primary hyperaldosteronism assessed by aldosterone/renin ratio and spironolactone testing. Clin. Med.5(1), 55–60 (2005).
  • Montori VM, Young WF Jr. Use of plasma aldosterone concentration-to-plasma renin activity ratio as a screening test for primary aldosteronism. A systematic review of the literature. Endocrin. Metab. Clin.31(3), 619–632, xi (2002).
  • Holland OB, Brown H, Kuhnert L, Fairchild C, Risk M, Gomez-Sanchez CE. Further evaluation of saline infusion for the diagnosis of primary aldosteronism. Hypertension6(5), 717–723 (1984).
  • Gordon RD, Jackson RV, Strakosch CR et al. Aldosterone producing adenoma: fludrocortisone suppression and left adrenal vein catheterisation in definitive diagnosis and management. Aust. NZ J. Med.9(6), 676–682 (1979).
  • Lyons DF, Kem DC, Brown RD, Hanson CS, Carollo ML. Single dose captopril as a diagnostic test for primary aldosteronism. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.57(5), 892–896 (1983).
  • Mulatero P, Bertello C, Garrone C et al. Captopril test can give misleading results in patients with suspect primary aldosteronism. Hypertension50(2), e26–e27 (2007).
  • Freel EM, Connell JM. The resurgence of aldosterone in hypertension and cardiovascular disease. Curr. Hypertens. Rev.2, 21–32 (2006).
  • Kloos RT, Gross MD, Francis IR, Korobkin M, Shapiro B. Incidentally discovered adrenal masses. Endocr. Rev.16(4), 460–484 (1995).
  • Kempers MJ, Lenders JW, van Outheusden L et al. Systematic review: diagnostic procedures to differentiate unilateral from bilateral adrenal abnormality in primary aldosteronism. Ann. Intern. Med.151(5), 329–337 (2009).
  • Young WF, Stanson AW. What are the keys to successful adrenal venous sampling (AVS) in patients with primary aldosteronism? Clin. Endocrinol.70(1), 14–17 (2009).
  • Harvey A, Kline G, Pasieka JL. Adrenal venous sampling in primary hyperaldosteronism: comparison of radiographic with biochemical success and the clinical decision-making with “less than ideal” testing. Surgery140(6), 847–853; discussion 853–855 (2006).
  • Rossi GP, Sacchetto A, Chiesura-Corona M et al. Identification of the etiology of primary aldosteronism with adrenal vein sampling in patients with equivocal computed tomography and magnetic resonance findings: results in 104 consecutive cases. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.86(3), 1083–1090 (2001).
  • Rossi GP, Pitter G, Bernante P, Motta R, Feltrin G, Miotto D. Adrenal vein sampling for primary aldosteronism: the assessment of selectivity and lateralization of aldosterone excess baseline and after adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulation. J. Hypertens.26(5), 989–997 (2008).
  • Seccia TM, Miotto D, De Toni R et al. Adrenocorticotropic hormone stimulation during adrenal vein sampling for identifying surgically curable subtypes of primary aldosteronism: comparison of 3 different protocols. Hypertension53(5), 761–766 (2009).
  • Magill SB, Raff H, Shaker JL et al. Comparison of adrenal vein sampling and computed tomography in the differentiation of primary aldosteronism. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.86(3), 1066–1071 (2001).
  • Phillips JL, Walther MM, Pezzullo JC et al. Predictive value of preoperative tests in discriminating bilateral adrenal hyperplasia from an aldosterone-producing adrenal adenoma. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.85(12), 4526–4533 (2000).
  • Catena C, Colussi G, Lapenna R et al. Long-term cardiac effects of adrenalectomy or mineralocorticoid antagonists in patients with primary aldosteronism. Hypertension50(5), 911–918 (2007).
  • Assalia A, Gagner M. Laparoscopic adrenalectomy. Brit. J. Surg.91(10), 1259–1274 (2004).
  • Celen O, O’Brien MJ, Melby JC, Beazley RM. Factors influencing outcome of surgery for primary aldosteronism. Arch. Surg. Chicago131(6), 646–650 (1996).
  • Meria P, Kempf BF, Hermieu JF, Plouin PF, Duclos JM. Laparoscopic management of primary hyperaldosteronism: clinical experience with 212 cases. J. Urology169(1), 32–35 (2003).
  • Sawka AM, Young WF, Thompson GB et al. Primary aldosteronism: factors associated with normalization of blood pressure after surgery. Ann. Intern. Med.135(4), 258–256 (2001).
  • Lumachi F, Ermani M, Basso SM, Armanini D, Iacobone M, Favia G. Long-term results of adrenalectomy in patients with aldosterone-producing adenomas: multivariate analysis of factors affecting unresolved hypertension and review of the literature. Am. Surgeon71(10), 864–869 (2005).
  • Proye CA, Mulliez EA, Carnaille BM et al. Essential hypertension: first reason for persistent hypertension after unilateral adrenalectomy for primary aldosteronism? Surgery124(6), 1128–1133 (1998).
  • Sicca DA. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of mineralocorticoid blocking agents and their effects on potassium homeostasis. Heart Fail. Rev.10, 23–29 (2005).
  • Chapman N, Dobson J, Wilson S et al. Effect of spironolactone on blood pressure in subjects with resistant hypertension. Hypertension49(4), 839–845 (2007).
  • Parthasarathy HK, Al-Hashmi K, McMahon AD et al. Does the ratio of serum aldosterone to plasma renin activity predict the efficacy of diuretics in hypertension? Results of RENALDO. J. Hypertens.28(1), 170–177 (2010).
  • de Gasparo M, Joss U, Ramjoue HP et al. Three new epoxy-spirolactone derivatives: characterization in vivo and in vitro. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther.240(2), 650–656 (1987).
  • Weinberger MH, Roniker B, Krause SL, Weiss RJ. Eplerenone, a selective aldosterone blocker, in mild-to-moderate hypertension. Am. J. Hypertens.15(8), 709–716 (2002).
  • Karagiannis A, Tziomalos K, Papageorgiou A et al. Spironolactone versus eplerenone for the treatment of idiopathic hyperaldosteronism. Expert Opin. Pharmacother.9(4), 509–515 (2008).
  • Lim PO, Young WF, Macdonald TM. A review of the medical treatment of primary aldosteronism. J. Hypertens.19(3), 353–361 (2001).
  • Connell JM, Freel EM. Mineralocorticoid hypertension. In: Oxford Textbook of Endocrinology and Diabetes. Wass J, Stewart PM (Eds). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK (2009).
  • Kaplan NM. The current epidemic of primary aldosteronism: causes and consequences. J. Hypertens.22(5), 863–869 (2004).
  • Rossi GP, Pessina AC, Heagerty AM. Primary aldosteronism: an update on screening, diagnosis and treatment. J. Hypertens.26(4), 613–621 (2008).
  • Hennings J, Lindhe O, Bergstrom M, Langstrom B, Sundin A, Hellman P. [11C]metomidate positron emission tomography of adrenocortical tumors in correlation with histopathological findings. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.91(4), 1410–1414, (2006).
  • Barr M, MacKenzie SM, Friel EC et al. Polymorphic variation in the 11β-hydroxylase gene associates with reduced 11-hydroxylase efficiency. Hypertension49(1), 113–119 (2007).
  • Freel EM, Ingram M, Wallace AM et al. Effect of variation in CYP11B1 and CYP11B2 on corticosteroid phenotype and hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis activity in hypertensive and normotensive subjects. Clin. Endocrinol.68(5), 700–706 (2008).

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.