References
- Glinoer D. Management of hypo- and hyperthyroidism during pregnancy. Growth Horm. IGF Res.13(Suppl. A), S45–S54 (2003).
- Okosieme OE, Lazarus JH. Management of thyroid dysfunction in pregnancy. Expert Opin. Pharmacother.9, 2281–2293 (2008).
- Glinoer D. The regulation of thyroid function in pregnancy: pathways of endocrine adaptation from physiology to pathology. Endocr. Rev.18, 404–433 (1997).
- Brent GA. Maternal thyroid function: interpretation of thyroid function tests in pregnancy. Clin. Obstet. Gynecol.40, 3–15 (1997).
- Smyth PP, Hetherton AM, Smith DF et al. Maternal iodine status and thyroid volume during pregnancy: correlation with neonatal iodine intake. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.82, 2840–2843 (1997).
- Abalovich M, Amino N, Barbour LA et al. Management of thyroid dysfunction during pregnancy and postpartum: an Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.92(8 Suppl.), S1–S47 (2007).
- Man EB, Reid WA, Hellegers AE, Jones WS. Thyroid function in human pregnancy. III. Serum thyroxine-binding prealbumin (TBPA) and thyroxine-binding globulin (TBG) of pregnant women aged 14 through 43 years. Am. J. Obst. Gynecol.103, 338–347 (1969).
- Yoshikawa N, Nishikawa M, Horimoto M et al. Thyroid-stimulating activity in sera of normal pregnant women. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.69, 891–895 (1989).
- Dashe JS, Casey BM, Wells CE et al. Thyroid-stimulating hormone in singleton and twin pregnancy: importance of gestational age-specific reference ranges. Obstet. Gynecol.106, 753–757 (2005).
- Lambert-Messerlian G, McClain M, Haddow JE et al. First- and second-trimester thyroid hormone reference data in pregnant women: a FaSTER (First- And Second-Trimester Evaluation Of Risk For Aneuploidy) Research Consortium study. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.199, 62.E1–E6 (2008).
- Weetman AP. The immunology of pregnancy. Thyroid9, 643–646 (1999).
- Elenkov IJ, Wilder RL, Bakalov VK et al. IL-12, TNF-α, and hormonal changes during late pregnancy and early postpartum: implications for autoimmune disease activity during these times. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.86, 4933–4938 (2001).
- Davis LE, Leveno KJ, Cunningham FG. Hypothyroidism complicating pregnancy. Obstet. Gynecol.72, 108–112 (1988).
- Leung AS, Millar LK, Koonings PP et al. Perinatal outcome in hypothyroid pregnancies. Obstet. Gynecol.81, 349–353 (1993).
- Idris I, Srinivasan R, Simm A, Page RC. Maternal hypothyroidism in early and late gestation: effects on neonatal and obstetric outcome. Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf.)63, 560–565 (2005).
- Casey BM, Dashe JS, Wells CE et al. Subclinical hypothyroidism and pregnancy outcomes. Obstet. Gynecol.105, 239–245 (2005).
- Stagnaro-Green A, Chen X, Bogden JD et al. The thyroid and pregnancy: a novel risk factor for very preterm delivery. Thyroid15, 351–357 (2005).
- Iijima T, Tada H, Hidaka Y et al. Effects of autoantibodies on the course of pregnancy and fetal growth. Obstet. Gynecol.90, 364–369 (1997).
- Dendrinos S, Papasteriades C, Tarassi K et al. Thyroid autoimmunity in patients with recurrent spontaneous miscarriages. Gynecol. Endocrinol.14, 270–274 (2000).
- Abalovich M, Gutierrez S, Alcaraz G et al. Overt and subclinical hypothyroidism complicating pregnancy. Thyroid12, 63–68 (2002).
- Negro R, Formoso G, Mangieri T et al. Levothyroxine treatment in euthyroid pregnant women with autoimmune thyroid disease: effects on obstetrical complications. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.91(7), 2587–2591 (2006).
- Haddow JE, Palomaki GE, Allan WC et al. Maternal thyroid deficiency during pregnancy and subsequent neuropsychological development of the child. N. Engl. J. Med.341, 549–555 (1999).
- Pop VJ, Brouwers EP, Vader HL et al. Maternal hypothyroxinaemia during early pregnancy and subsequent child development: a 3-year follow-up study. Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf.)59, 282–288 (2003).
- Pop VJ, de Vries E, van Baar AL et al. Maternal thyroid peroxidase antibodies during pregnancy: a marker of impaired child development? J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.80, 3561–3566 (1995).
- Casey BM, Dashe JS, Spong CY et al. Perinatal significance of isolated maternal hypothyroxinemia identified in the first half of pregnancy. Obstet. Gynecol.109, 1129–1135 (2007).
- Li Y, Shan Z, Teng W et al. Abnormalities of maternal thyroid function during pregnancy affect neuropsychological development of their children at 25–30 months. Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf.)72(6), 825–829 (2010).
- Wijnen HA, Kooistra L, Vader HL, Essed GG, Mol BW, Pop VJ. Maternal thyroid hormone concentration during late gestation is associated with foetal position at birth. Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf.)71, 746–751 (2009).
- Benhadi N, Wiersinga WM, Reitsma JB, Vrijkotte TG, Bonsel GJ. Higher maternal TSH levels in pregnancy are associated with increased risk for miscarriage, fetal or neonatal death. Eur. J. Endocrinol.160, 985–991 (2009).
- Klein RZ, Haddow JE, Faix JD et al. Prevalence of thyroid deficiency in pregnant women. Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf.)35, 41–46 (1991).
- Mandel SJ. Hypothyroidism and chronic autoimmune thyroiditis in the pregnant state: maternal aspects. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.18, 213–224 (2004).
- Mandel SJ, Brent GA, Larsen PR. Levothyroxine therapy in patients with thyroid disease. Ann. Intern. Med.119, 492–502 (1993).
- Loh JA, Wartofsky L, Jonklaas J, Burman KD. The magnitude of increased levothyroxine requirements in hypothyroid pregnant women depends upon the etiology of the hypothyroidism. Thyroid19, 269–275 (2009).
- Millar LK, Wing DA, Leung AS et al. Low birth weight and preeclampsia in pregnancies complicated by hyperthyroidism. Obstet. Gynecol.84, 946–949 (1994).
- Phoojaroenchanachai M, Sriussadaporn S, Peerapatdit T et al. Effect of maternal hyperthyroidism during late pregnancy on the risk of neonatal low birth weight. Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf.)54, 365–370 (2001).
- Davis LE, Lucas MJ, Hankins GD et al. Thyrotoxicosis complicating pregnancy. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.160, 63–70 (1989).
- Easterling TR, Schmucker BC, Carlson KL et al. Maternal hemodynamics in pregnancies complicated by hyperthyroidism. Obstet. Gynecol.78, 348–352 (1991).
- Zimmerman D. Fetal and neonatal hyperthyroidism. Thyroid9, 727–733 (1999).
- Polak M, Le Gac I, Vuillard E et al. Fetal and neonatal thyroid function in relation to maternal Graves’ disease. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.18, 289–302 (2004).
- Lee YS, Loke KY, Ng SC, Joseph R. Maternal thyrotoxicosis causing central hypothyroidism in infants. J. Paediatr. Child Health38, 206–208 (2002).
- McKenzie JM, Zakarija M. Fetal and neonatal hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism due to maternal TSH receptor antibodies. Thyroid2, 155–159 (1992).
- Marx H, Amin P, Lazarus JH. Hyperthyroidism and pregnancy. BMJ336(7645), 663–667 (2008).
- Mestman JH. Hyperthyroidism in pregnancy. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.18, 267–288 (2004).
- Goodwin TM, Montoro M, Mestman JH et al. The role of chorionic gonadotropin in transient hyperthyroidism of hyperemesis gravidarum. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.75, 1333–1337 (1992).
- Laurberg P, Nygaard B, Glinoer D et al. Guidelines for TSH-receptor antibody measurements in pregnancy: results of an evidence-based symposium organized by the European Thyroid Association. Eur. J. Endocrinol.139, 584–586 (1998).
- Laurberg P, Bournaud C, Karmisholt J, Orgiazzi J. Management of Graves’ hyperthyroidism in pregnancy: focus on both maternal and foetal thyroid function, and caution against surgical thyroidectomy in pregnancy. Eur. J. Endocrinol.160, 1–8 (2009).
- Cooper DS. Antithyroid drugs. N. Engl. J. Med.352, 905–917 (2005).
- Gorman CA. Radioiodine and pregnancy. Thyroid9, 721–726 (1999).
- Marchant B, Brownlie BE, Hart DM et al. The placental transfer of propylthiouracil, methimazole and carbimazole. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.45, 1187–1193 (1977).
- Mortimer RH, Cannell GR, Addison RS et al. Methimazole and propylthiouracil equally cross the perfused human term placental lobule. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.82, 3099–3102 (1997).
- Johnsson E, Larsson G, Ljunggren M. Severe malformations in infant born to hyperthyroid woman on methimazole. Lancet350, 1520 (1997).
- Cooper DS, Rivkees SA. Putting propylthiouracil in perspective. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.94, 1881–1882 (2009).
- Karlsson FA, Axelsson O, Melhus H. Severe embryopathy and exposure to methimazole in early pregnancy. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.87, 947–949 (2002).
- Di Gianantonio E, Schaefer C, Mastroiacovo PP et al. Adverse effects of prenatal methimazole exposure. Teratology64, 262–266 (2001).
- Momotani N, Ito K, Hamada N et al. Maternal hyperthyroidism and congenital malformation in the offspring. Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf.)20, 695–700 (1984).
- Barbero P, Valdez R, Rodriguez H et al. Choanal atresia associated with maternal hyperthyroidism treated with methimazole: a case control study. Am. J. Med. Genet.146A, 2390–2395 (2008).
- Eisenstein Z, Weiss M, Katz Y, Bank H. Intellectual capacity of subjects exposed to methimazole or propylthiouracil in utero. Eur. J. Pediatr.151, 558–559 (1992).
- Messer PM, Hauffa BP, Olbricht T et al. Antithyroid drug treatment of Graves’ disease in pregnancy: long-term effects on somatic growth, intellectual development and thyroid function of the offspring. Acta Endocrinol.123, 311–316 (1990).
- Azizi F, Khamseh ME, Bahreynian M, Hedayati M. Thyroid function and intellectual development of children of mothers taking methimazole during pregnancy. J. Endocrinol. Invest.25, 586–589 (2002).
- Mandel SJ, Cooper DS. The use of antithyroid drugs in pregnancy and lactation. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.86, 2354–2359 (2001).
- Lazarus JH. Thyroid disorders associated with pregnancy: etiology, diagnosis, and management. Treat. Endocrinol.4, 31–41 (2005).
- Muller AF, Drexhage HA, Berghout A. Postpartum thyroiditis and autoimmune thyroiditis in women of childbearing age: recent insights and consequences for antenatal and postnatal care. Endocr. Rev.22, 605–630 (2001).
- Stagnaro-Green A. Postpartum thyroiditis. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.18, 303–316 (2004).
- Nicholson WK, Robinson KA, Smallridge RC et al. Prevalence of postpartum thyroid dysfunction: a quantitative review. Thyroid16, 573–582 (2006).
- Fung HY, Kologlu M, Collison K et al. Postpartum thyroid dysfunction in Mid-Glamorgan. Br. Med. J.296, 241–244 (1988).
- Lazarus JH, Hall R, Othman S et al. The clinical spectrum of postpartum thyroid disease. QJM89, 429–435 (1996).
- Amino N, Tada H, Hidaka Y. Postpartum autoimmune thyroid syndrome: a model of aggravation of autoimmune disease. Thyroid9, 705–713 (1999).
- Harris B, Fung H, Johns S et al. Transient post-partum thyroid dysfunction and postnatal depression. J. Affect. Disord.17, 243–249 (1989).
- Kent GN, Stuckey BG, Allen JR et al. Postpartum thyroid dysfunction: clinical assessment and relationship to psychiatric affective morbidity. Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf.)51, 429–438 (1999).
- Premawardhana LD, Parkes AB, Ammari F et al. Postpartum thyroiditis and long-term thyroid status: prognostic influence of thyroid peroxidase antibodies and ultrasound echogenicity. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.85(1), 71–75 (2000).
- Vaidya B, Anthony S, Bilous M et al. Detection of thyroid dysfunction in early pregnancy: universal screening or targeted high-risk case finding? J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.92, 203–207 (2007).
- Negro R, Schwartz A, Gismondi R, Tinelli A, Mangieri T, Stagnaro-Green A. Universal screening versus case finding for detection and treatment of thyroid hormonal dysfunction during pregnancy. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.95, 1699–1707 (2010).
- Thung SF, Funai EF, Grobman WA. The cost–effectiveness of universal screening in pregnancy for subclinical hypothyroidism. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.200(3), 267.E1–E7 (2009).
- Dosiou C, Sanders GD, Araki SS, Crapo LM. Screening pregnant women for autoimmune thyroid disease: a cost–effectiveness analysis. Eur. J. Endocrinol.158, 841–851 (2008).
- Lazarus JH, Premawardhana LD. Screening for thyroid disease in pregnancy. J. Clin. Pathol.58, 449–452 (2005).