Recent insights into the pathophysiology of preeclampsia

References

• Roberts JM, Cooper DW. Pathogenesis and genetics of pre-eclampsia. Lancet357(9249), 53–56 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Granger JP, Alexander BT, Llinas MT, Bennett WA, Khalil RA. Pathophysiology of preeclampsia: linking placental ischemia/hypoxia with microvascular dysfunction. Microcirculation9(3), 147–160 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zandi-Nejad K, Luyckx VA, Brenner BM. Adult hypertension and kidney disease: the role of fetal programming. Hypertension47(3), 502–508 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sibai B, Dekker G, Kupferminc M. Pre-eclampsia. Lancet365(9461), 785–799 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harskamp RE, Zeeman GG. Preeclampsia: at risk for remote cardiovascular disease. Am. J. Med. Sci.334(4), 291–295 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meis PJ, Goldenberg RL, Mercer BM et al. The preterm prediction study: risk factors for indicated preterm births. Maternal–Fetal Medicine Units Network of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.178(3), 562–567 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts JM, Pearson GD, Cutler JA, Lindheimer MD. Summary of the NHLBI working group on research on hypertension during pregnancy. Hypertens. Pregnancy22(2), 109–127 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caritis S, Sibai B, Hauth J et al. Predictors of pre-eclampsia in women at high risk. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Network of Maternal–Fetal Medicine Units. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.179(4), 946–951 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sibai BM, Ewell M, Levine RJ et al. Risk factors associated with preeclampsia in healthy nulliparous women. The Calcium for Preeclampsia Prevention (CPEP) Study Group. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.177(5), 1003–1010 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mostello D, Catlin TK, Roman L, Holcomb WL Jr, Leet T. Preeclampsia in the parous woman: who is at risk? Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.187(2), 425–429 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hladunewich M, Karumanchi SA, Lafayette R. Pathophysiology of the clinical manifestations of preeclampsia. Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol.2(3), 543–549 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shembrey MA, Noble AD. An instructive case of abdominal pregnancy. Aust. N. Z. J. Obstet. Gynaecol.35(2), 220–221 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Redman CW, Sacks GP, Sargent IL. Preeclampsia: an excessive maternal inflammatory response to pregnancy. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.180(2 Pt 1), 499–506 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts JM, Pearson G, Cutler J, Lindheimer M. Summary of the NHLBI working group on research on hypertension during pregnancy. Hypertension41(3), 437–445 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts JM, Gammill HS. Preeclampsia: recent insights. Hypertension46(6), 1243–1249 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhou Y, Damsky CH, Fisher SJ. Preeclampsia is associated with failure of human cytotrophoblasts to mimic a vascular adhesion phenotype. One cause of defective endovascular invasion in this syndrome? J. Clin. Invest.99(9), 2152–2164 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brosens IA, Robertson WB, Dixon HG. The role of the spiral arteries in the pathogenesis of preeclampsia. Obstet. Gynecol. Annu.1, 177–191 (1972).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Karimu AL, Burton GJ. The effects of maternal vascular pressure on the dimensions of the placental capillaries. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol.101(1), 57–63 (1994).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lim KH, Zhou Y, Janatpour M et al. Human cytotrophoblast differentiation/invasion is abnormal in pre-eclampsia. Am. J. Pathol.151(6), 1809–1818 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Damsky CH, Fisher SJ. Trophoblast pseudo-vasculogenesis: faking it with endothelial adhesion receptors. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol.10(5), 660–666 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rodesch F, Simon P, Donner C, Jauniaux E. Oxygen measurements in endometrial and trophoblastic tissues during early pregnancy. Obstet. Gynecol.80(2), 283–285 (1992).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rajakumar A, Doty K, Daftary A, Harger G, Conrad KP. Impaired oxygen-dependent reduction of HIF-1α and -2α proteins in pre-eclamptic placentae. Placenta24(2–3), 199–208 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rajakumar A, Whitelock KA, Weissfeld LA et al. Selective overexpression of the hypoxia-inducible transcription factor, HIF-2α, in placentas from women with preeclampsia. Biol. Reprod.64(2), 499–506 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lyall F, Greer IA, Boswell F et al. Expression of cell adhesion molecules in placentae from pregnancies complicated by pre-eclampsia and intrauterine growth retardation. Placenta16(7), 579–587 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Macara L, Kingdom JC, Kohnen G et al. Elaboration of stem villous vessels in growth restricted pregnancies with abnormal umbilical artery Doppler waveforms. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol.102(10), 807–812 (1995).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sheppard BL, Bonnar J. An ultrastructural study of utero–placental spiral arteries in hypertensive and normotensive pregnancy and fetal growth retardation. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol.88(7), 695–705 (1981).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Knofler M. Critical growth factors and signalling pathways controlling human trophoblast invasion. Int. J. Dev. Biol.54(2–3), 269–280 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lindheimer MD, Taler SJ, Cunningham FG. ASH position paper: hypertension in pregnancy. J. Clin. Hypertens. (Greenwich)11(4), 214–225 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hodari AA. Chronic uterine ischemia and reversible experimental ‘toxemia of pregnancy’. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.97(5), 597–607 (1967).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Losonczy G, Brown G, Venuto RC. Increased peripheral resistance during reduced uterine perfusion pressure hypertension in pregnant rabbits. Am. J. Med. Sci.303(4), 233–240 (1992).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cavanagh D, Rao PS, Tsai CC, O’Connor TC. Experimental toxemia in the pregnant primate. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.128(1), 75–85 (1977).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cavanagh D, Rao PS, Tung KS, Gaston L. Eclamptogenic toxemia: the development of an experimental model in the subhuman primate. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.120(2), 183–196 (1974).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Combs CA, Katz MA, Kitzmiller JL, Brescia RJ. Experimental preeclampsia produced by chronic constriction of the lower aorta: validation with longitudinal blood pressure measurements in conscious rhesus monkeys. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.169(1), 215–223 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Makris A, Thornton C, Thompson J et al. Uteroplacental ischemia results in proteinuric hypertension and elevated sFLT-1. Kidney Int.71(10), 977–984 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Granger JP, LaMarca BB, Cockrell K et al. Reduced uterine perfusion pressure (RUPP) model for studying cardiovascular–renal dysfunction in response to placental ischemia. Methods Mol. Med.122, 383–392 (2006).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sholook MM, Gilbert JS, Sedeek MH et al. Systemic hemodynamic and regional blood flow changes in response to chronic reductions in uterine perfusion pressure in pregnant rats. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol.293(4), H2080–H2084 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burton GJ, Jauniaux E. Placental oxidative stress: from miscarriage to preeclampsia. J. Soc. Gynecol. Investig.11(6), 342–352 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hung TH, Burton GJ. Hypoxia and reoxygenation: a possible mechanism for placental oxidative stress in preeclampsia. Taiwan J. Obstet. Gynecol.45(3), 189–200 (2006).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hung TH, Skepper JN, Charnock-Jones DS, Burton GJ. Hypoxia–reoxygenation: a potent inducer of apoptotic changes in the human placenta and possible etiological factor in preeclampsia. Circ. Res.90(12), 1274–1281 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walsh SW. Maternal–placental interactions of oxidative stress and antioxidants in preeclampsia. Semin. Reprod. Endocrinol.16(1), 93–104 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Staff AC, Ranheim T, Khoury J, Henriksen T. Increased contents of phospholipids, cholesterol, and lipid peroxides in decidua basalis in women with preeclampsia. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.180(3 Pt 1), 587–592 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Staff AC, Halvorsen B, Ranheim T, Henriksen T. Elevated level of free 8-iso-prostaglandin F2α in the decidua basalis of women with preeclampsia. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.181(5 Pt 1), 1211–1215 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roggensack AM, Zhang Y, Davidge ST. Evidence for peroxynitrite formation in the vasculature of women with preeclampsia. Hypertension33(1), 83–89 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sedeek M, Gilbert JS, LaMarca BB et al. Role of reactive oxygen species in hypertension produced by reduced uterine perfusion in pregnant rats. Am. J. Hypertens.21(10), 1152–1156 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sedeek MW, Wang YP, Granger, JP. Increased oxidative stress in a rat model of preeclampsia. Am. J. Hypertens.17(142A) (2004).
   Google Scholar
• Xia Y, Kellems RE. Is preeclampsia an autoimmune disease? Clin. Immunol.133(1), 1–12 (2009).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Herse F, Staff AC, Hering L et al. AT1-receptor autoantibodies and uteroplacental RAS in pregnancy and pre-eclampsia. J. Mol. Med.86(6), 697–703 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campbell DM, MacGillivray I, Carr-Hill R. Pre-eclampsia in second pregnancy. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol.92(2), 131–140 (1985).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Saito S, Shiozaki A, Nakashima A, Sakai M, Sasaki Y. The role of the immune system in preeclampsia. Mol. Aspects Med.28(2), 192–209 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robillard PY, Hulsey TC, Alexander GR et al. Paternity patterns and risk of preeclampsia in the last pregnancy in multiparae. J. Reprod. Immunol.24(1), 1–12 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schiessl B. Inflammatory response in preeclampsia. Mol. Aspects Med.28(2), 210–219 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Redman CW, Sargent IL. Pre-eclampsia, the placenta and the maternal systemic inflammatory response – a review. Placenta24(Suppl. A), S21–S27 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gadonski G, LaMarca BB, Sullivan E et al. Hypertension produced by reductions in uterine perfusion in the pregnant rat: role of interleukin 6. Hypertension48(4), 711–716 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LaMarca B, Speed J, Fournier L et al. Hypertension in response to chronic reductions in uterine perfusion in pregnant rats: effect of tumor necrosis factor-α blockade. Hypertension52(6), 1161–1167 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alexander BT, Cockrell KL, Massey MB, Bennett WA, Granger JP. Tumor necrosis factor-α-induced hypertension in pregnant rats results in decreased renal neuronal nitric oxide synthase expression. Am. J. Hypertens.15(2 Pt 1), 170–175 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LaMarca BB, Cockrell K, Sullivan E, Bennett W, Granger JP. Role of endothelin in mediating tumor necrosis factor-induced hypertension in pregnant rats. Hypertension46(1), 82–86 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Germain SJ, Sacks GP, Sooranna SR, Sargent IL, Redman CW. Systemic inflammatory priming in normal pregnancy and preeclampsia: the role of circulating syncytiotrophoblast microparticles. J. Immunol.178(9), 5949–5956 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wallukat G, Homuth V, Fischer T et al. Patients with preeclampsia develop agonistic autoantibodies against the angiotensin AT1 receptor. J. Clin. Invest.103(7), 945–952 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dechend R, Viedt C, Muller DN et al. AT1 receptor agonistic antibodies from preeclamptic patients stimulate NADPH oxidase. Circulation107(12), 1632–1639 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stepan H, Faber R, Wessel N et al. Relation between circulating angiotensin II type 1 receptor agonistic autoantibodies and soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 in the pathogenesis of preeclampsia. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.91(6), 2424–2427 (2006).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zhou CC, Ahmad S, Mi T et al. Autoantibody from women with preeclampsia induces soluble Fms-like tyrosine kinase-1 production via angiotensin type 1 receptor and calcineurin/nuclear factor of activated T-cells signaling. Hypertension51(4), 1010–1019 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LaMarca B, Wallukat G, Llinas M et al. Autoantibodies to the angiotensin type I receptor in response to placental ischemia and tumor necrosis factor α in pregnant rats. Hypertension52(6), 1168–1172 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LaMarca B, Parrish M, Ray LF et al. Hypertension in response to autoantibodies to the angiotensin II type I receptor (AT1-AA) in pregnant rats: role of endothelin-1. Hypertension54(4), 905–909 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhou CC, Zhang Y, Irani RA et al. Angiotensin receptor agonistic autoantibodies induce pre-eclampsia in pregnant mice. Nat. Med.14(8), 855–862 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mutter WP, Karumanchi SA. Molecular mechanisms of preeclampsia. Microvasc. Res.75(1), 1–8 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LaMarca BD, Alexander BT, Gilbert JS et al. Pathophysiology of hypertension in response to placental ischemia during pregnancy: a central role for endothelin? Gend. Med.5(Suppl. A), S133–S138 (2008).
   Google Scholar
• LaMarca BD, Gilbert J, Granger JP. Recent progress toward the understanding of the pathophysiology of hypertension during preeclampsia. Hypertension51(4), 982–988 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Banks RE, Forbes MA, Searles J et al. Evidence for the existence of a novel pregnancy-associated soluble variant of the vascular endothelial growth factor receptor, Flt-1. Mol. Hum. Reprod.4(4), 377–386 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Helske S, Vuorela P, Carpen O et al. Expression of vascular endothelial growth factor receptors 1, 2 and 3 in placentas from normal and complicated pregnancies. Mol. Hum. Reprod.7(2), 205–210 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kendall RL, Thomas KA. Inhibition of vascular endothelial cell growth factor activity by an endogenously encoded soluble receptor. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA90(22), 10705–10709 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levine RJ, Lam C, Qian C et al. Soluble endoglin and other circulating antiangiogenic factors in preeclampsia. N. Engl. J. Med.355(10), 992–1005 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhou Y, McMaster M, Woo K et al. Vascular endothelial growth factor ligands and receptors that regulate human cytotrophoblast survival are dysregulated in severe preeclampsia and hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, and low platelets syndrome. Am. J. Pathol.160(4), 1405–1423 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maynard SE, Min JY, Merchan J et al. Excess placental soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 (sFlt1) may contribute to endothelial dysfunction, hypertension, and proteinuria in preeclampsia. J. Clin. Invest.111(5), 649–658 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levine RJ, Maynard SE, Qian C et al. Circulating angiogenic factors and the risk of preeclampsia. N. Engl. J. Med.350(7), 672–683 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huckle WR, Roche RI. Post-transcriptional control of expression of sFlt-1, an endogenous inhibitor of vascular endothelial growth factor. J. Cell. Biochem.93(1), 120–132 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Soleymanlou N, Jurisica I, Nevo O et al. Molecular evidence of placental hypoxia in preeclampsia. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.90(7), 4299–4308 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nagamatsu T, Fujii T, Kusumi M et al. Cytotrophoblasts up-regulate soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase-1 expression under reduced oxygen: an implication for the placental vascular development and the pathophysiology of preeclampsia. Endocrinology145(11), 4838–4845 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahmad S, Ahmed A. Elevated placental soluble vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-1 inhibits angiogenesis in preeclampsia. Circ. Res.95(9), 884–891 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nevo O, Soleymanlou N, Wu Y et al. Increased expression of sFlt-1 in in vivo and in vitro models of human placental hypoxia is mediated by HIF-1. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol.291(4), R1085–R1093 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heiskanen J, Romppanen EL, Hiltunen M et al. Polymorphism in the tumor necrosis factor-α gene in women with preeclampsia. J. Assist. Reprod. Genet.19(5), 220–223 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eremina V, Sood M, Haigh J et al. Glomerular-specific alterations of VEGF-A expression lead to distinct congenital and acquired renal diseases. J. Clin. Invest.111(5), 707–716 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Byers BD, Betancourt A, Lu F et al. The effect of prepregnancy obesity and sFlt-1-induced preeclampsia-like syndrome on fetal programming of adult vascular function in a mouse model. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.200(4), 432.e1–7 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Gilbert JS, Babcock SA, Granger JP. Hypertension produced by reduced uterine perfusion in pregnant rats is associated with increased soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase-1 expression. Hypertension50(6), 1142–1147 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bridges JP, Gilbert JS, Colson D et al. Oxidative stress contributes to soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase-1 induced vascular dysfunction in pregnant rats. Am. J. Hypertens.22(5), 564–568 (2009).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Murphy SR, LaMarca BB, Cockrell K, Granger JP. Role of endothelin in mediating soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1-induced hypertension in pregnant rats. Hypertension55(2), 394–398 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilbert JS, Ryan MJ, LaMarca BB et al. Pathophysiology of hypertension during preeclampsia: linking placental ischemia with endothelial dysfunction. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol.294(2), H541–H550 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang A, Rana S, Karumanchi SA. Preeclampsia: the role of angiogenic factors in its pathogenesis. Physiology (Bethesda)24, 147–158 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ballermann BJ. Glomerular endothelial cell differentiation. Kidney Int.67(5), 1668–1671 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhu X, Wu S, Dahut WL, Parikh CR. Risks of proteinuria and hypertension with bevacizumab, an antibody against vascular endothelial growth factor: systematic review and meta-analysis. Am. J. Kidney Dis.49(2), 186–193 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li Z, Zhang Y, Ying Ma J et al. Recombinant vascular endothelial growth factor 121 attenuates hypertension and improves kidney damage in a rat model of preeclampsia. Hypertension50(4), 686–692 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suzuki H, Ohkuchi A, Matsubara S et al. Effect of recombinant placental growth factor 2 on hypertension induced by full-length mouse soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 adenoviral vector in pregnant mice. Hypertension54(5), 1129–1135 (2009).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bergmann A, Ahmad S, Cudmore M et al. Reduction of circulating soluble Flt-1 alleviates preeclampsia-like symptoms in a mouse model. J. Cell. Mol. Med.14(6B), 1857–1867 (2009).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gilbert JS, Verzwyvelt J, Colson D et al. Recombinant vascular endothelial growth factor 121 infusion lowers blood pressure and improves renal function in rats with placental ischemia-induced hypertension. Hypertension55(2), 380–385 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maglione D, Guerriero V, Viglietto G, Delli-Bovi P, Persico MG. Isolation of a human placenta cDNA coding for a protein related to the vascular permeability factor. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA88(20), 9267–9271 (1991).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shore VH, Wang TH, Wang CL et al. Vascular endothelial growth factor, placenta growth factor and their receptors in isolated human trophoblast. Placenta18(8), 657–665 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khaliq A, Li XF, Shams M et al. Localisation of placenta growth factor (PIGF) in human term placenta. Growth Factors13(3–4), 243–250 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lam C, Lim KH, Karumanchi SA. Circulating angiogenic factors in the pathogenesis and prediction of preeclampsia. Hypertension46(5), 1077–1085 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park JE, Chen HH, Winer J, Houck KA, Ferrara N. Placenta growth factor. Potentiation of vascular endothelial growth factor bioactivity, in vitro and in vivo, and high affinity binding to Flt-1 but not to Flk-1/KDR. J. Biol. Chem.269(41), 25646–25654 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahmed A, Dunk C, Ahmad S, Khaliq A. Regulation of placental vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and placenta growth factor (PIGF) and soluble Flt-1 by oxygen – a review. Placenta21(Suppl. A), S16–S24 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dvorak HF, Brown LF, Detmar M, Dvorak AM. Vascular permeability factor/vascular endothelial growth factor, microvascular hyperpermeability, and angiogenesis. Am. J. Pathol.146(5), 1029–1039 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tayade C, Hilchie D, He H et al. Genetic deletion of placenta growth factor in mice alters uterine NK cells. J. Immunol.178(7), 4267–4275 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheifetz S, Bellon T, Cales C et al. Endoglin is a component of the transforming growth factor-β receptor system in human endothelial cells. J. Biol. Chem.267(27), 19027–19030 (1992).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gougos A, St Jacques S, Greaves A et al. Identification of distinct epitopes of endoglin, an RGD-containing glycoprotein of endothelial cells, leukemic cells, and syncytiotrophoblasts. Int. Immunol.4(1), 83–92 (1992).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Venkatesha S, Toporsian M, Lam C et al. Soluble endoglin contributes to the pathogenesis of preeclampsia. Nat. Med.12(6), 642–649 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilbert JS, Gilbert SA, Arany M, Granger JP. Hypertension produced by placental ischemia in pregnant rats is associated with increased soluble endoglin expression. Hypertension53(2), 399–403 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhou CC, Irani RA, Zhang Y et al. Angiotensin receptor agonistic autoantibody-mediated tumor necrosis factor-α induction contributes to increased soluble endoglin production in preeclampsia. Circulation121(3), 436–444 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yanagisawa M, Inoue A, Ishikawa T et al. Primary structure, synthesis, and biological activity of rat endothelin, an endothelium-derived vasoconstrictor peptide. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA85(18), 6964–6967 (1988).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yanagisawa M, Kurihara H, Kimura S, Goto K, Masaki T. A novel peptide vasoconstrictor, endothelin, is produced by vascular endothelium and modulates smooth muscle Ca2+ channels. J. Hypertens. Suppl.6(4), S188–S191 (1988).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Taylor RN, Varma M, Teng NN, Roberts JM. Women with preeclampsia have higher plasma endothelin levels than women with normal pregnancies. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.71(6), 1675–1677 (1990).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benigni A, Orisio S, Gaspari F et al. Evidence against a pathogenetic role for endothelin in pre-eclampsia. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol.99(10), 798–802 (1992).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bernardi F, Constantino L, Machado R, Petronilho F, Dal-Pizzol F. Plasma nitric oxide, endothelin-1, arginase and superoxide dismutase in pre-eclamptic women. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. Res.34(6), 957–963 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nezar MA, el-Baky AM, Soliman OA et al. Endothelin-1 and leptin as markers of intrauterine growth restriction. Indian J. Pediatr.76(5), 485–488 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cao J, Inoue K, Li X, Drummond G, Abraham NG. Physiological significance of heme oxygenase in hypertension. Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol.41(5), 1025–1033 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahmed A, Rahman M, Zhang X et al. Induction of placental heme oxygenase-1 is protective against TNFα-induced cytotoxicity and promotes vessel relaxation. Mol. Med.6(5), 391–409 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoshiki N, Kubota T, Aso T. Expression and localization of heme oxygenase in human placental villi. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun.276(3), 1136–1142 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLaughlin BE, Hutchinson JM, Graham CH et al. Heme oxygenase activity in term human placenta. Placenta21(8), 870–873 (2000).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bainbridge SA, Smith GN. HO in pregnancy. Free Radic. Biol. Med.38(8), 979–988 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Idriss NK, Blann AD, Lip GY. Hemoxygenase-1 in cardiovascular disease. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.52(12), 971–978 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bainbridge SA, Farley AE, McLaughlin BE et al. Carbon monoxide decreases perfusion pressure in isolated human placenta. Placenta23(8–9), 563–569 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Qanungo S, Mukherjea M. Ontogenic profile of some antioxidants and lipid peroxidation in human placental and fetal tissues. Mol. Cell. Biochem.215(1–2), 11–19 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barber A, Robson SC, Myatt L, Bulmer JN, Lyall F. Heme oxygenase expression in human placenta and placental bed: reduced expression of placenta endothelial HO-2 in preeclampsia and fetal growth restriction. FASEB. J.15(7), 1158–1168 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Appleton SD, Marks GS, Nakatsu K et al. Heme oxygenase activity in placenta: direct dependence on oxygen availability. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol.282(6), H2055–H2059 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang R, Shamloul R, Wang X, Meng Q, Wu L. Sustained normalization of high blood pressure in spontaneously hypertensive rats by implanted hemin pump. Hypertension48(4), 685–692 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar