3
Views
6
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Cardiovascular alterations in the parturient undergoing cesarean delivery with neuraxial anesthesia

, &
Pages 59-75 | Published online: 10 Jan 2014

References

  • Guise JM, Denman MA, Emeis C et al. Vaginal birth after cesarean: new insights on maternal and neonatal outcomes. Obstet. Gynecol.115(6), 1267–1278 (2010).
  • Bucklin B, Hawkins J, Anderson J, Ullrich F. Obstetric anesthesia workforce survey. Anesthesiology103, 645–653 (2005).
  • Rahman K, Jenkins JG. Failed tracheal intubation in obstetrics: no more frequent but still managed badly. Anaesthesia60(2), 168–171 (2005).
  • Tsen LC, Pitner R, Camann WR. General anesthesia for cesarean section at a tertiary care hospital 1990–1995: indications and implications. Int. J. Obstet. Anesth.7(3), 147–152 (1998).
  • Palanisamy A, Mitani AA, Tsen LC. General anesthesia for cesarean delivery at a tertiary care hospital from 2000 to 2005: a retrospective analysis and 10-year update. Int. J. Obstet. Anesth.20(1), 10–16 (2011).
  • Poppas A, Shroff SG, Korcarz CE et al. Serial assessment of the cardiovascular system in normal pregnancy role of arterial compliance and pulsatile arterial load. Circulation95(10), 2407–2415 (1997).
  • Lund CJ, Donovan JC. Blood volume during pregnancy. Significance of plasma and red cell volumes. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.98(3), 394–403 (1967).
  • Clapp JF, Seaward BL, Sleamaker RH, Hiser J. Maternal physiologic adaptations to early human pregnancy. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.159(6), 1456–1460 (1988).
  • Mabie WC, DiSessa TG, Crocker LG, Sibai BM, Arheart KL. A Longitudinal study of cardiac output in normal human pregnancy. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.170(3), 849–856 (1994).
  • Robb AO, Mills NL, Din JN et al. Influence of the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, and preeclampsia on arterial stiffness. Hypertension53(6), 952–958 (2009).
  • Robson SC, Hunter S, Boys RJ, Dunlop W. Serial study of factors influencing changes in cardiac output during human pregnancy. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol.256(4), H1060–H1065 (1989).
  • Ueland K, Novy MJ, Peterson EN, Metcalfe J. Maternal cardiovascular dynamics. IV. The influence of gestational age on the maternal cardiovascular response to posture and exercise. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.104(6), 856–864 (1969).
  • Walters WA, MacGregor WG, Hills M. Cardiac output at rest during pregnancy and the puerperium. Clin. Sci.30(1), 1–11 (1966).
  • Katz R, Karliner JS, Resnik R. Effects of a natural volume overload state (pregnancy) on left ventricular performance in normal human subjects. Circulation58(3), 434–441 (1978).
  • Mabie WC, DiSessa TG, Crocker LG, Sibai BM, Arheart KL. A longitudinal study of cardiac output in normal human pregnancy. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.170(3), 849–856 (1994).
  • Robson SC, Hunter S, Boys RJ, Dunlop W. Serial changes in pulmonary haemodynamics during human pregnancy: a non-invasive study using Doppler ecochardiography. Clin. Sci.80, 113–117 (1991).
  • Thornburg KL, Jacobson S-L, Giraud GD, Morton MJ. Hemodynamic changes in pregnancy. Semin. Perinatol.24(1), 11–14 (2000).
  • Colditz RB, Josey WE. Central venous pressure in supine position during normal pregnancy. Comparative determinations during first, second and third trimesters. Obstet. Gynecol.36(5), 769–772 (1970).
  • Secher NJ, Andersen LH. Changes in the pattern of regional pulmonary blood flow after PGF2 infusion in pregnant women. Cardiovasc. Res.11(1), 26–30 (1977).
  • Secher NJ, Arnsbo P, Andersen LH, Thomsen A. Measurements of cardiac stroke volume in various body positions in pregnancy and during cesarean section: a comparison between thermodilution and impedance cardiography. Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Invest.39(6), 569–576 (1979).
  • Bader RA, Bader ME, Rose DJ, Braunwald E. Hemodynamics at rest and during exercise in normal pregnancy as studied by cardiac catheterization. J. Clin. Invest.34(10), 1524–1536 (1955).
  • Dyer RA, James MF. Maternal hemodynamic monitoring in obstetric anesthesia. Anesthesiology109(5), 765–767 (2008).
  • Burwell CS, Strayhorn WD, Flickinger DON, Corlette MB, Bowerman EP, Kennedy JA. Circulation during pregnancy. Arch. Intern. Med.62(6), 979 (1938).
  • Robson SC, Dunlop W, Moore M, Hunter S. Combined Doppler and echocardiographic measurement of cardiac output: theory and application in pregnancy. BJOG94(11), 1014–1027 (1987).
  • Easterling TR, Watts DH, Schmucker BC, Benedetti TJ. Measurement of cardiac output during pregnancy: validation of Doppler technique and clinical observations in preeclampsia. Obstet. Gynecol.69(6), 845 (1987).
  • Jacobs LD, Salgo IS, Goonewardena S et al. Rapid online quantification of left ventricular volume from real-time three-dimensional echocardiographic data. Eur. Heart J.27(4), 460–468 (2006).
  • Hansegard J, Urheim S, Lunde K, Malm S, Rabben S. Semi-automated quantification of left ventricular volumes and ejection fraction by real-time three-dimensional echocardiography. Cardiovasc. Ultrasound7(1), 18 (2009).
  • Mor-Avi V, Jenkins C, Kühl HP et al. Real-time 3-dimensional echocardiographic quantification of left ventricular volumes: multicenter study for validation with magnetic resonance imaging and investigation of sources of error. JACC Cardiovasc. Imaging1(4), 413–423 (2008).
  • Kleijn SA, Aly MFA, Terwee CB, van Rossum AC, Kamp O. Reliability of left ventricular volumes and function measurements using three-dimensional speckle tracking echocardiography. Eur. J. Echocardiogr. doi:10.1093/ejechocard/jer174 (2011) (Epub ahead of print).
  • Sugeng L, Mor-Avi V, Weinert L et al. Multimodality comparison of quantitative volumetric analysis of the right ventricle. JACC: Cardiovascular Imaging3(1), 10–18 (2010).
  • van der Zwaan HB, Geleijnse ML, McGhie JS et al. Right ventricular quantification in clinical practice: two-dimensional vs. three-dimensional echocardiography compared with cardiac magnetic resonance imaging. Eur. J. Echocardiogr.12(9), 656–664 (2011).
  • Kleijn SA, Aly MFA, Terwee CB, van Rossum AC, Kamp O. Comparison between direct volumetric and speckle tracking methodologies for left ventricular and left atrial chamber quantification by three-dimensional echocardiography. Am. J. Cardiol.108(7), 1038–1044 (2011).
  • Arias-Godínez JA, Guadalajara-Boo JF, Patel AR, Pandian NG. Function and mechanics of the left ventricle: from tissue Doppler imaging to three dimensional speckle tracking. Arch. Cardiol. Mex.81(2), 114–125 (2011).
  • Nesser HJ, Mor-Avi V, Gorissen W et al. Quantification of left ventricular volumes using three-dimensional echocardiographic speckle tracking: comparison with MRI. Eur. Heart J.30(13), 1565–1573 (2009).
  • Easterling TR, Benedetti TJ, Carlson KL, Watts DH. Measurement of cardiac output in pregnancy by thermodilution and impedance techniques. BJOG96(1), 67–69 (1989).
  • Swiet M, Talbert DG. The measurement of cardiac output by electrical impedance plethysmography in pregnancy. Are the assumptions valid?. BJOG93(7), 721–726 (1986).
  • Shoemaker WC, Wo CCJ, Bishop MH et al. Multicenter trial of a new thoracic electrical bioimpedance device for cardiac output estimation. Crit. Care Med.22(12), 1907–1912 (1994).
  • Jewkes C, Sear JW, Verhoeff F, Sanders DJ, Foex P. Non-invasive measurement of cardiac output by thoracic electrical bioimpedance: a study of reproducibility and comparison with thermodilution. Br. J. Anaesth.67(6), 788–794 (1991).
  • Milsom I, Forssman L, Biber B. Maternal haemodynamic changes during caesarean section: a comparison of epidural and general anaesthesia. Acta Anaesthesiol. Scand.29(2), 161–167 (1985).
  • Tihtonen K, Kööbi T, Yli-Hankala A, Uotila J. Maternal hemodynamics during cesarean delivery assessed by whole-body impedance cardiography. Acta. Obstet. Gynecol. Scand.84(4), 355–361 (2005).
  • Dyer RA, Reed AR, van Dyk D et al. hemodynamic effects of ephedrine, phenylephrine, and the coadministration of phenylephrine with oxytocin during spinal anesthesia for elective cesarean delivery. Anesthesiology111(4), 753–765 (2009).
  • Dyer R, Piercy J, Reed A et al. Comparison between pulse waveform analysis and thermodilution cardiac output determination in patients with severe pre-eclampsia. Br. J. Anaesth.106(1), 77–81 (2011).
  • Auler Junior JOC, Torres MLA, Cardoso MM et al. Clinical evaluation of the flotrac/vigileo system for continuous cardiac output monitoring in patients undergoing regional anesthesia for elective cesarean section: a pilot study. Clinics65(8), 793–798 (2010).
  • Wollman SB, Marx GF. Acute hydration for prevention of hypotension of spinal anesthesia in parturients. Anesthesiology29(2), 374–380 (1968).
  • Dyer RA, Farina Z, Joubert IA et al. Crystalloid preload versus rapid crystalloid administration after induction of spinal anaesthesia (coload) for elective caesarean section. Anaesth. Intensive Care32(3), 351–357 (2004).
  • Tercanli S, Schneider M, Visca E et al. Influence of volume preloading on uteroplacental and fetal circulation during spinal anaesthesia for caesarean section in uncomplicated singleton pregnancies. Fetal Diagn. Ther.17(3), 142–146 (2002).
  • Clark RB, Thompson DS, Thompson CH. Prevention of spinal hypotension associated with Cesarean section. Anesthesiology45(6), 670–674 (1976).
  • Siddik-Sayyid SM, Nasr VG, Taha SK et al. A randomized trial comparing colloid preload to coload during spinal anesthesia for elective cesarean delivery. Anesth. Analg.109(4), 1219–1224 (2009).
  • Park GE, Hauch MA, Curlin F, Datta S, Bader AM. The effects of varying volumes of crystalloid administration before cesarean delivery on maternal hemodynamics and colloid osmotic pressure. Anesth. Analg.83(2), 299–303 (1996).
  • Gogarten W, Struemper D, Gramke HF et al. Assessment of volume preload on uteroplacental blood flow during epidural anaesthesia for Caesarean section. Eur. J. Anaesthesiol.22(5), 359–362 (2005).
  • Ueyama H, He YL, Tanigami H, Mashimo T, Yoshiya I. Effects of crystalloid and colloid preload on blood volume in the parturient undergoing spinal anesthesia for elective cesarean section. Anesthesiology91(6), 1571–1576 (1999).
  • Robson SC, Boys RJ, Rodeck C, Morgan B. Maternal and fetal haemodynamic effects of spinal and extradural anaesthesia for elective caesarean section. Br. J. Anaesth.68(1), 54–59 (1992).
  • Robson S, Hunter S, Boys R, Dunlop W, Bryson M. Changes in cardiac output during epidural anaesthesia for caesarean section. Anaesthesia44(6), 475–479 (1989).
  • Bray JK, Fernando R, Patel NP, Columb MO. Suprasternal Doppler estimation of cardiac output: standard versus sequential combined spinal epidural anesthesia for cesarean delivery. Anesth. Analg.103(4), 959–964 (2006).
  • Riley ET, Cohen SE, Rubenstein AJ, Flanagan B. Prevention of hypotension after spinal anesthesia for cesarean section: six percent hetastarch versus lactated Ringer’s solution. Anesth. Analg.81(4), 838–842 (1995).
  • Rout C, Rocke DA. Spinal hypotension associated with Cesarean section: will preload ever work?. Anesthesiology91(6), 1565–1567 (1999).
  • Banerjee A, Stocche R, Angle P, Halpern S. Preload or coload for spinal anesthesia for elective Cesarean delivery: a meta-analysis. Can. J. Anaesth.57(1), 24–31 (2010).
  • Teoh WHL, Sia ATH. Colloid preload versus coload for spinal anesthesia for cesarean delivery: the effects on maternal cardiac output. Anesth. Analg.108(5), 1592–1598 (2009).
  • Chamberlain DP, Chamberlain BDL. Changes in the skin temperature of the trunk and their relationship to sympathetic blockade during spinal anesthesia. Anesthesiology65(2), 139–143 (1986).
  • Brown D. Miller’s Anesthesia. Miller RD, EL, Fleisher LA, Wiener-Kronish JP, Young WL (Eds). Churchill Livingstone Elsevier, PA, USA, 1616–1618 (2009).
  • Niswonger JWH, Langmade CF. Cardiovascular changes in vaginal deliveries and cesarean sections. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.107(3), 337–344 (1970).
  • Dyer RA, Piercy JL, Reed AR, Lombard CJ, Schoeman LK, James MF. Hemodynamic changes associated with spinal anesthesia for cesarean delivery in severe preeclampsia. Anesthesiology108(5), 802–811 (2008).
  • Langesaeter E, Rosseland LA, Stubhaug A. Continuous invasive blood pressure and cardiac output monitoring during cesarean delivery: a randomized, double-blind comparison of low-dose versus high-dose spinal anesthesia with intravenous phenylephrine or placebo infusion. Anesthesiology109(5), 856–863 (2008).
  • Sharwood-Smith G, Drummond GB. Hypotension in obstetric spinal anaesthesia: a lesson from pre-eclampsia. Br. J. Anaesth.102(3), 291–294 (2009).
  • Dyer RA, Reed AR. Spinal hypotension during elective cesarean delivery: closer to a solution. Anesth. Analg.111(5), 1093–1095 (2010).
  • Ueland K, Gills RE, Hansen JM. Maternal cardiovascular dynamics. I. Cesarean section under subarachnoid block anesthesia. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.100(1), 42–54 (1968).
  • Ngan Kee WD, Khaw KS, Lee BB, Lau TK, Gin T. A dose-response study of prophylactic intravenous ephedrine for the prevention of hypotension during spinal anesthesia for Cesarean delivery. Anesth. Analg.90(6), 1390–1395 (2000).
  • Kinsella SM, Norris MC. Advance prediction of hypotension at cesarean delivery under spinal anesthesia. Int. J. Obstet. Anesth.5(1), 3–7 (1996).
  • Frölich MA, Caton D. Baseline heart rate may predict hypotension after spinal anesthesia in prehydrated obstetrical patients. Can. J. Anaesth.49(2), 185–189 (2002).
  • Dahlgren G, Granath F, Wessel H, Irestedt L. Prediction of hypotension during spinal anesthesia for cesarean section and its relation to the effect of crystalloid or colloid preload. Int. J. Obstet. Anesth.16(2), 128–134 (2007).
  • Hanss R, Bein B, Ledowski T et al. Heart rate variability predicts severe hypotension after spinal anesthesia for elective cesarean delivery. Anesthesiology102(6), 1086–1093 (2005).
  • Hanss R, Bein B, Weseloh H et al. Heart rate variability predicts severe hypotension after spinal anesthesia. Anesthesiology104(3), 537–547 (2006).
  • Chamchad D, Arkoosh VA, Horrow JC et al. Using heart rate variability to stratify risk of obstetric patients undergoing spinal anesthesia. Anesth. Analg.99(6), 1818 (2004).
  • Kiel C. Changes in heart rate variability may reflect sympatholysis during spinal anaesthesia. Acta Anaesthesiol. Scand.51(10), 1297–1304 (2007).
  • Clark RB, Thompson DS, Thompson CH. Prevention of spinal hypotension associated with cesarean section. Anesthesiology45(6), 670–674 (1976).
  • Kiran S, Singal NK. A comparative study of three different doses of 0.5% hyperbaric bupivacaine for spinal anaesthesia in elective caesarean section. Int. J. Obstet. Anesth.11(3), 185–189 (2002).
  • Asehnoune K, Larousse E, Tadie JM, Minville V, Droupy S, Benhamou D. Small-dose bupivacaine-sufentanil prevents cardiac output modifications after spinal anesthesia. Anesth. Analg.101(5), 1512–1515 (2005).
  • Van de Velde M, Van Schoubroeck D, Jani J, Teunkens A, Missant C, Deprest J. Combined spinal-epidural anesthesia for Cesarean delivery: dose-dependent effects of hyperbaric bupivacaine on maternal hemodynamics. Anesth. Analg.103(1), 187–190 (2006).
  • Vercauteren MP, Coppejans HC, Hoffmann VH, Mertens E, Adriaensen HA. Prevention of hypotension by a single 5-mg dose of ephedrine during small-dose spinal anesthesia in prehydrated cesarean delivery patients. Anesth. Analg.90(2), 324–327 (2000).
  • Ngan Kee WD, Khaw KS, Ng FF, Lee BB. Prophylactic phenylephrine infusion for preventing hypotension during spinal anesthesia for cesarean delivery. Anesth. Analg.98(3), 815–821 (2004).
  • Kety SS, King BD, Horvath SM, Jeffers WA, Hafkenschiel JH. The effects of an acute reduction in blood pressure by means of differential spinal sympathetic block on the cerebral circulation of hypertensive patients. J. Clin. Invest.29(4), 402–407 (1950).
  • Liu SS, Ware PD, Allen HW, Neal JM, Pollock JE. Dose-response characteristics of spinal bupivacaine in volunteers: clinical implications for ambulatory anesthesia. Anesthesiology85(4), 729–736 (1996).
  • Fan SZ, Susetio L, Wang YP, Cheng YJ, Liu CC. Low dose of intrathecal hyperbaric bupivacaine combined with epidural lidocaine for cesarean section – a balance block technique. Anesth. Analg.78(3), 474–477 (1994).
  • Ben-David B, Miller G, Gavriel R, Gurevitch A. Low-dose bupivacaine-fentanyl spinal anesthesia for cesarean delivery. Reg. Anesth. Pain Med.25(3), 235–239 (2000).
  • Choi DH, Ahn HJ, Kim JA. Combined low-dose spinal-epidural anesthesia versus single-shot spinal anesthesia for elective cesarean delivery. Int. J. Obstet. Anesth.15(1), 13–17 (2006).
  • Dyer RA, Joubert IA. Low-dose spinal anaesthesia for Caesarean section. Current Opinion Anesthesiology17(4), 301–308 (2004).
  • Vercauteren MP, Coppejans HC, Hoffmann VL, Saldien V, Adriaensen HA. Small-dose hyperbaric versus plain bupivacaine during spinal anesthesia for cesarean section. Anesth. Analg.86(5), 989–993 (1998).
  • Sarvela PJ, Halonen PM, Korttila KT. Comparison of 9 mg of intrathecal plain and hyperbaric bupivacaine both with fentanyl for cesarean delivery. Anesth. Analg.89(5), 1257–1262 (1999).
  • Maruta S. [The observation of the maternal hemodynamics during labor and cesarean section]. Nippon Sanka Fujinka Gakkai Zasshi34(6), 776–784 (1982).
  • Juhani TP, Hannele H. Complications during spinal anesthesia for cesarean delivery: a clinical report of one year’s experience. Reg. Anesth. Pain Med.18(2), 128–131 (1993).
  • Caplan RA, Ward RJ, Posner K, Cheney FW. Unexpected cardiac arrest during spinal anesthesia: a closed claims analysis of predisposing factors. Anesthesiology68(1), 5–11 (1988).
  • Auroy Y, Narchi P, Messiah A, Litt L, Rouvier B, Samii K. Serious complications related to regional anesthesia: results of a prospective survey in France. Anesthesiology87(3), 479 (1997).
  • Kopp SL, Horlocker TT, Warner ME et al. Cardiac arrest during neuraxial anesthesia: frequency and predisposing factors associated with survival. Anesth. Analg.100(3), 855–865 (2005).
  • Allard R, Hatzakorzian R, Deschamps A, Backman S. Decreased heart rate and blood pressure in a recent cardiac transplant patient after spinal anesthesia. Can. J. Anaesth.51(8), 829–833 (2004).
  • Ng K, Parsons J, Cyna AM, Middleton P. Spinal versus epidural anaesthesia for caesarean section. Cochrane Database Syst Rev.4, CD003765 (2004).
  • Ueland K, Akamatsu TJ, Eng M, Bonica JJ, Hansen JM. Maternal cardiovascular dynamics VI. Cesarean section under epidural anesthesia without epinephrine. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.114(6), 775–780 (1972).
  • James CF, Banner T, Caton D. Cardiac output in women undergoing cesarean section with epidural or general anesthesia. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.160(5), 1178–1184 (1989).
  • Robson SC, Dunlop W, Hunter S, Boys R, Bryson M. Haemodynamic changes associated with caesarean section under epidural anaesthesia. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol.96(6), 642–647 (1989).
  • Alahuhta S, Räsänen J, Jouppila R, Jouppila P, Hollmen A. Effects of extradural bupivacaine with adrenaline for caesarean section on uteroplacental and fetal circulation. Br. J. Anaesth.67(6), 678–682 (1991).
  • Hamlyn E, Douglass C, Plaat F, Crowhurst J, Stocks G. Low-dose sequential combined spinal-epidural: an anaesthetic technique for caesarean section in patients with significant cardiac disease. Int. J. Obstet. Anesth.14(4), 355–361 (2005).
  • Archer TL, Knape K, Liles D, Wheeler AS, Carter B. The hemodynamics of oxytocin and other vasoactive agents during neuraxial anesthesia for cesarean delivery: findings in six cases. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.126(6), 671–677 (1976).
  • Larsson C, Saltvedt S, Wiklund I, Pahlen S, Andolf E. Estimation of blood loss after cesarean section and vaginal delivery has low validity with a tendency to exaggeration. Acta. Obstet. Gynecol. Scand.85(12), 1448–1452 (2006).
  • Mayer DC SK. Antepartum and postpartum hemorrhage. In: Chestnut’s Obstetric Anesthesia. Polley LS, Tsen LC, Wong CA (Eds). Mosby Elsevier, PA, USA, 829–830 (2009).
  • Hendricks CH, Brenner WE. Cardiovascular effects of oxytocic drugs used post partum. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.108(5), 751–760 (1970).
  • Tsen LC. Oxytocin protocols during Cesarean delivery: time to acknowledge the risk/benefit ratios?. Int. J. Obstet. Anesth.19(3), 243–245 (2010).
  • Langesaeter E, Rosseland LA, Stubhaug A. Haemodynamic effects of repeated doses of oxytocin during Caesarean delivery in healthy parturients. Br. J. Anaesth.103(2), 260–262 (2009).
  • Spielman FJ, Herbert WNP. Maternal cardiovascular effects of drugs that alter uterine activity. Obstet. Gynecol. Surv.43(9), 516–522 (1988).
  • Johnstone M. The cardiovascular effects of oxytocic drugs. Br. J. Anaesth.44(8), 826–834 (1972).
  • Mabie WC, Ratts TE, Sibai BM. The central hemodynamics of severe preeclampsia. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.161(6 Pt 1), 1443–1448 (1989).
  • Yang JM, Yang YC, Wang KG. Central and peripheral hemodynamics in severe preeclampsia. Acta. Obstet. Gynecol. Scand.75(2), 120–126 (1996).
  • Visser W, Wallenburg HC. Central hemodynamic observations in untreated preeclamptic patients. Hypertension17(6), 1072–1077 (1991).
  • Groenendijk R, Trimbos JB, Wallenburg HC. Hemodynamic measurements in preeclampsia: preliminary observations. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.150(3), 232–236 (1984).
  • Tihtonen K, Kööbi T, Yli-Hankala A, Huhtala H, Uotila J. Maternal haemodynamics in pre-eclampsia compared with normal pregnancy during caesarean delivery. BJOG113(6), 657–663 (2006).
  • Visalyaputra S, Rodanant O, Somboonviboon W, Tantivitayatan K, Thienthong S, Saengchote W. Spinal versus epidural anesthesia for cesarean delivery in severe preeclampsia: a prospective randomized, multicenter study. Anesth. Analg.101(3), 862–868 (2005).
  • Karinen J, Rasanen J, Alahuhta S, Jouppila R, Jouppila P. Maternal and uteroplacental haemodynamic state in pre-eclamptic patients during spinal anaesthesia for Caesarean section. Br. J. Anaesth.76(5), 616–620 (1996).
  • Aya AGM, Mangin R, Vialles N et al. Patients with severe preeclampsia experience less hypotension during spinal anesthesia for elective cesarean delivery than healthy parturients: a prospective cohort comparison. Anesth. Analg.97(3), 867–872 (2003).
  • Aya AGM, Vialles N, Tanoubi I et al. Spinal anesthesia-induced hypotension: a risk comparison between patients with severe preeclampsia and healthy women undergoing preterm cesarean delivery. Anesth. Analg.101(3), 869–875 (2005).
  • Clark VA, Sharwood-Smith GH, Stewart AVG. Ephedrine requirements are reduced during spinal anaesthesia for caesarean section in preeclampsia. Int. J. Obstet. Anesth.14(1), 9–13 (2005).
  • Wallace DH, Leveno KJ, Cunningham FG, Giesecke AH, Shearer VE, Sidawi JE. Randomized comparison of general and regional anesthesia for cesarean delivery in pregnancies complicated by severe preeclampsia. Obstet. Gynecol.86, 193–199 (1995).
  • Sharwood-Smith G, Clark V, Watson E. Regional anaesthesia for caesarean section in severe preeclampsia: spinal anaesthesia is the preferred choice. Int. J. Obstet. Anesth.8(2), 85–89 (1999).
  • Hood DD, Curry R. Spinal versus epidural anesthesia for cesarean section in severely preeclamptic patients: a retrospective survey. Anesthesiology90(5), 1276–1282 (1999).
  • Santos AC, Birnbach DJ. Spinal anesthesia for cesarean delivery in severely preeclamptic women: don’t throw out the baby with the bathwater! Anesth. Analg.101, 859–861 (2005).
  • Pritchard JA. changes in the blood volume during pregnancy and delivery. Anesthesiology26, 393–399 (1965).
  • Kametas NA, McAuliffe F, Krampl E, Chambers J, Nicolaides KH. Maternal cardiac function in twin pregnancy. Obstet. Gynecol.102(4), 806–815 (2003).
  • Campbell DM. Maternal adaptation in twin pregnancy. Semin. Perinatol.10(1), 14–18 (1986).
  • Ngan Kee WD, Khaw KS, Ng FF, Karmakar MK, Critchley LA, Gin T. A prospective comparison of vasopressor requirement and hemodynamic changes during spinal anesthesia for cesarean delivery in patients with multiple gestation versus singleton pregnancy. Anesth. Analg.104(2), 407–411 (2007).
  • Bamber JH, Dresner M. Aortocaval compression in pregnancy: the effect of changing the degree and direction of lateral tilt on maternal cardiac output. Anesth. Analg.97(1), 256–258 (2003).
  • Eckstein KL, Marx GF. Aortocaval compression and uterine displacement. Anesthesiology40(1), 92–96 (1974).
  • Mendonca C, Griffiths J, Ateleanu B, Collis RE. Hypotension following combined spinal-epidural anaesthesia for Caesarean section. Anaesthesia58(5), 428–431 (2003).
  • Kinsella SM. Lateral tilt for pregnant women: why 15 degrees?. Anaesthesia58(9), 835–836 (2003).
  • Yun EM, Marx GF, Santos AC. The effects of maternal position during induction of combined spinal-epidural anesthesia for cesarean delivery. Anesth. Analg.87(3), 614 (1998).
  • Coppejans HC, Hendrickx E, Goossens J, Vercauteren MP. The sitting versus right lateral position during combined spinal-epidural anesthesia for cesarean delivery: block characteristics and severity of hypotension. Anesth. Analg.102(1), 243–247 (2006).
  • Morgan PJ, Halpern SH, Tarshis J. The effects of an increase of central blood volume before spinal anesthesia for cesarean delivery: a qualitative systematic review. Anesth. Analg.92(4), 997–1005 (2001).
  • Lee A, Ngan Kee WD, Gin T. Prophylactic ephedrine prevents hypotension during spinal anesthesia for cesarean delivery but does not improve neonatal outcome: a quantitative systematic review. Can. J. Anaesth.49(6), 588–599 (2002).
  • Ayorinde BT, Buczkowski P, Brown J, Shah J, Buggy DJ. Evaluation of pre-emptive intramuscular phenylephrine and ephedrine for reduction of spinal anaesthesia-induced hypotension during caesarean section. Br. J. Anaesth.86(3), 372–376 (2001).
  • Clark RB, Brunner JA III. Dopamine for the treatment of spinal hypotension during cesarean section. Anesthesiology53(6), 514–517 (1980).
  • Ngan Kee WD, Khaw KS, Ng FF, Lee BB. Prophylactic phenylephrine infusion for preventing hypotension during spinal anesthesia for cesarean delivery. Anesth. Analg.98(3), 815–821 (2004).
  • Macarthur A, Riley ET. Obstetric anesthesia controversies: vasopressor choice for post-spinal hypotension during cesarean delivery. Int. Anesth. Clin.45(1), 115–132 (2007).
  • Ngan Kee WD, Khaw KS. Vasopressors in obstetrics: what should we be using?. Curr. Opin. Anesth.19(3), 238–243 (2006).
  • Roberts SW, Leveno KJ, Lucas MJ, Sidawi JE. Fetal acidemia associated with regional anesthesia for elective cesarean delivery. Obstet. Gynecol.85(1), 79–83 (1995).
  • Mueller MD, Brühwiler H, Schüpfer GK, Lüscher KP. Higher rate of fetal acidemia after regional anesthesia for elective cesarean delivery. Obstet. Gynecol.90(1), 131–134 (1997).
  • Reynolds F, Seed PT. Anaesthesia for Caesarean section and neonatal acid–base status: a meta-analysis. Anaesthesia60(7), 636–653 (2005).
  • Greiss Jr FC, Gobble Jr FL. Effect of sympathetic nerve stimulation on the uterine vascular bed. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.97(7), 962–967 (1967).
  • Adamsons K, Mueller-Heubach E, Myers RE. Production of fetal asphyxia in the rhesus monkey by administration of catecholamines to the mother. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.109(2), 248–262 (1971).
  • Eng M, Berges PU, Ueland K, Bonica JJ, Parer JT. The effects of methoxamine and ephedrine in normotensive pregnant primates. Anesthesiology35(4), 354–360 (1971).
  • Ralston DH, Shnider SM, deLorimier AA. Effects of equipotent ephedrine, metaraminol, mephentermine, and methoxamine on uterine blood flow in the pregnant ewe. Anesthesiology40(4), 354–370 (1974).
  • Tong C, Eisenach JC. The vascular mechanism of ephedrine’s beneficial effect on uterine perfusion during pregnancy. Anesthesiology76(5), 792–798 (1992).
  • Eng M, Beres PU, Parer JT, Bonica JJ, Ueland K. Spinal anesthesia and ephedrine in pregnant monkeys. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.115(8), 1095–1095 (1973).
  • James FM, Greiss FC, Kemp RA. An evaluation of vasopressor therapy for maternal hypotension during spinal anesthesia. Anesthesiology33(1), 25–34 (1970).
  • Ngan Kee WD, Khaw KS, Tan PE, Ng FF, Karmakar MK. Placental transfer and fetal metabolic effects of phenylephrine and ephedrine during spinal anesthesia for cesarean delivery. Anesthesiology111(3), 506–512 (2009).
  • Cooper DW, Carpenter M, Mowbray P, Desira WR, Ryall DM, Kokri MS. Fetal and maternal effects of phenylephrine and ephedrine during spinal anesthesia for cesarean delivery. Anesthesiology97(6), 1582–1590 (2002).
  • Lee A, Ngan Kee WD, Gin T. A quantitative, systematic review of randomized controlled trials of ephedrine versus phenylephrine for the management of hypotension during spinal anesthesia for cesarean delivery. Anesth. Analg.94(4), 920–926 (2002).
  • Ngan Kee WD, Lau TK, Khaw KS, Lee BB. Comparison of metaraminol and ephedrine infusions for maintaining arterial pressure during spinal anesthesia for elective cesarean section. Anesthesiology95(2), 307–313 (2001).
  • Lee A, Ngan Kee WD, Gin T. A dose-response meta-analysis of prophylactic intravenous ephedrine for the prevention of hypotension during spinal anesthesia for elective cesarean delivery. Anesth. Analg.98(2), 483–490 (2004).
  • Ngan Kee WD, Khaw KS, Lau TK, Ng FF, Chui K, Ng KL. Randomised double-blinded comparison of phenylephrine vs ephedrine for maintaining blood pressure during spinal anaesthesia for non-elective Caesarean section. Anaesthesia63(12), 1319–1326 (2008).
  • Ngan Kee WD, Lee A, Khaw KS, Ng FF, Karmakar MK, Gin T. A randomized double-blinded comparison of phenylephrine and ephedrine infusion combinations to maintain blood pressure during spinal anesthesia for Cesarean delivery: the effects on fetal acid–base status and hemodynamic control. Anesth. Analg.107(4), 1295–1302 (2008).
  • Smiley RM. Burden of proof. Anesthesiology111(3), 470–472 (2009).
  • Erkinaro T, Kavasmaa T, Pakkila M et al. Ephedrine and phenylephrine for the treatment of maternal hypotension in a chronic sheep model of increased placental vascular resistance. Br. J. Anaesth.96(2), 231–237 (2006).
  • Ngan Kee WD, Khaw KS, Ng FF. Prevention of hypotension during spinal anesthesia for cesarean delivery: an effective technique using combination phenylephrine infusion and crystalloid cohydration. Anesthesiology103(4), 744–750 (2005).
  • Ngan Kee W, Khaw K, Ng F. Comparison of phenylephrine infusion regimens for maintaining maternal blood pressure during spinal anaesthesia for Caesarean section. Br. J. Anaesth.92(4), 468–474 (2004).
  • Tanaka M, Balki M, Parkes RK, Carvalho JCA. ED95 of phenylephrine to prevent spinal-induced hypotension and/or nausea at elective cesarean delivery. Int. J. Obstet. Anesth.18(2), 125–130 (2009).
  • George RB, McKeen D, Columb MO, Habib AS. Up–down determination of the 90% effective dose of phenylephrine for the treatment of spinal anesthesia-induced hypotension in parturients undergoing cesarean delivery. Anesth. Analg.110(1), 154–158 (2010).
  • Allen TK, George RB, White WD, Muir HA, Habib AS. A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of four fixed rate infusion regimens of phenylephrine for hemodynamic support during spinal anesthesia for Cesarean delivery. Anesth. Analg.111(5), 1221–1229 (2010).
  • Flo K, Wilsgaard T, Vårtun A, Acharya G. A longitudinal study of the relationship between maternal cardiac output measured by impedance cardiography and uterine artery blood flow in the second half of pregnancy. BJOG117(7), 837–844 (2010).
  • Archer TL, Knape K, Liles D, Wheeler AS, Carter B. The hemodynamics of oxytocin and other vasoactive agents during neuraxial anesthesia for cesarean delivery: findings in six cases. Int. J. Obstet. Anesth.17(3), 247–254 (2008).

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.