Therapy and prophylaxis of brain metastases

References

• Gavrilovic IT, Posner JB. Brain metastases: epidemiology and pathophysiology. J. Neurooncol.75(1), 5–14 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fidler IJ, Yano S, Zhang RD, Fujimaki T, Bucana CD. The seed and soil hypothesis: vascularisation and brain metastases. Lancet Oncol.3(1), 53–57 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bos PD, Zhang XH, Nadal C et al. Genes that mediate breast cancer metastasis to the brain. Nature459(7249), 1005–1009 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chambers AF, Groom AC, MacDonald IC. Dissemination and growth of cancer cells in metastatic sites. Nat. Rev. Cancer2(8), 563–572 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kienast Y, von Baumgarten L, Fuhrmann M et al. Real-time imaging reveals the single steps of brain metastasis formation. Nat. Med.16(1), 116–122 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hwang TL, Close TP, Grego JM, Brannon WL, Gonzales F. Predilection of brain metastasis in gray and white matter junction and vascular border zones. Cancer77(8), 1551–1555 (1996).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Delattre JY, Krol G, Thaler HT, Posner JB. Distribution of brain metastases. Arch. Neurol.45(7), 741–744 (1988).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chamberlain MC. Anticancer therapies and CNS relapse: overcoming blood–brain and blood–cerebrospinal fluid barrier impermeability. Expert Rev. Neurother.10(4), 547–561 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Takeshima H, Kuratsu J, Nishi T, Ushio Y. Prognostic factors in patients who survived more than 10 years after undergoing surgery for metastatic brain tumors: report of 5 cases and review of the literature. Surg. Neurol.58(2), 118–123 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Patchell RA, Tibbs PA, Walsh JW et al. A randomized trial of surgery in the treatment of single metastases to the brain. N. Engl. J. Med.322(8), 494–500 (1990).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patel RR, Mehta MP. Targeted therapy for brain metastases: improving the therapeutic ratio. Clin. Cancer Res.13(6), 1675–1683 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chamberlain MC. Brain metastases: a medical neuro-oncology perspective. Expert Rev. Neurother.10(4), 563–573 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson JD, Young B. Demographics of brain metastasis. Neurosurg. Clin. N. Am.7(3), 337–344 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sundermeyer M, Meropol N, Rogatko A et al.Changing patterns of colorectal metastasis: a 10-year retrospective review. J. Clin. Oncol.22(Suppl. 14) (2004) (Abstract 3548).
   Google Scholar
• Shmueli E, Wigler N, Inbar M. Central nervous system progression among patients with metastatic breast cancer responding to trastuzumab treatment. Eur. J. Cancer40(3), 379–382 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Omuro AM, Kris MG, Miller VA et al. High incidence of disease recurrence in the brain and leptomeninges in patients with nonsmall cell lung carcinoma after response to gefitinib. Cancer103(11), 2344–2348 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palmieri D, Chambers AF, Felding-Habermann B, Huang S, Steeg PS. The biology of metastasis to a sanctuary site. Clin. Cancer Res.13(6), 1656–1662 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaspar L, Scott C, Rotman M et al. Recursive partitioning analysis (RPA) of prognostic factors in three Radiation Therapy Oncology Group (RTOG) brain metastases trials. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys.37(4), 745–751 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sperduto PW, Berkey B, Gaspar LE, Mehta M, Curran W. A new prognostic index and comparison to three other indices for patients with brain metastases: an analysis of 1,960 patients in the RTOG database. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys.70(2), 510–514 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lagerwaard FJ, Levendag PC. Prognostic factors in patients with brain metastases. Forum (Genova)11(1), 27–46 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Altundag K, Bondy ML, Mirza NQ et al. Clinicopathologic characteristics and prognostic factors in 420 metastatic breast cancer patients with central nervous system metastasis. Cancer110(12), 2640–2647 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grinberg-Rashi H, Ofek E, Perelman M et al. The expression of three genes in primary non-small cell lung cancer is associated with metastatic spread to the brain. Clin. Cancer Res.15(5), 1755–1761 (2009).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gabos Z, Sinha R, Hanson J et al. Prognostic significance of human epidermal growth factor receptor positivity for the development of brain metastasis after newly diagnosed breast cancer. J. Clin. Oncol.24(36), 5658–5663 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pestalozzi BC, Zahrieh D, Price KN et al. Identifying breast cancer patients at risk for central nervous system (CNS) metastases in trials of the International Breast Cancer Study Group (IBCSG). Ann. Oncol.17(6), 935–944 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin NU, Claus E, Sohl J, Razzak AR, Arnaout A, Winer EP. Sites of distant recurrence and clinical outcomes in patients with metastatic triple-negative breast cancer: high incidence of central nervous system metastases. Cancer113(10), 2638–2645 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lorger M, Krueger JS, O’Neal M, Staflin K, Felding-Habermann B. Activation of tumor cell integrin αvβ3 controls angiogenesis and metastatic growth in the brain. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA106(26), 10666–10671 (2009).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Muller A, Homey B, Soto H et al. Involvement of chemokine receptors in breast cancer metastasis. Nature410(6824), 50–56 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zlotnik A. Chemokines in neoplastic progression. Semin. Cancer Biol.14(3), 181–185 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chamberlain MC. Anticancer therapies and CNS relapse: overcoming blood–brain and blood–cerebrospinal fluid barrier impermeability. Expert Rev. Neurother.10(4), 547–561 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khuntia D, Brown P, Li J, Mehta MP. Whole-brain radiotherapy in the management of brain metastasis. J. Clin. Oncol.24(8), 1295–1304 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patchell RA. The management of brain metastases. Cancer Treat. Rev.29(6), 533–540 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kurtz JM, Gelber R, Brady LW, Carella RJ, Cooper JS. The palliation of brain metastases in a favorable patient population: a randomized clinical trial by the Radiation Therapy Oncology Group. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys.7(7), 891–895 (1981).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murray KJ, Scott C, Greenberg HM et al. A randomized Phase III study of accelerated hyperfractionation versus standard in patients with unresected brain metastases: a report of the Radiation Therapy Oncology Group (RTOG) 9104. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys.39(3), 571–574 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chatani M, Matayoshi Y, Masaki N, Inoue T. Radiation therapy for brain metastases from lung carcinoma. Prospective randomized trial according to the level of lactate dehydrogenase. Strahlenther. Onkol.170(3), 155–161 (1994).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gaspar LE, Mehta MP, Patchell RA et al. The role of whole brain radiation therapy in the management of newly diagnosed brain metastases: a systematic review and evidence-based clinical practice guideline. J. Neurooncol.96(1), 17–32 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nieder C, Berberich W, Schnabel K. Tumor-related prognostic factors for remission of brain metastases after radiotherapy. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys.39(1), 25–30 (1997).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bentzen SM, Trotti A. Evaluation of early and late toxicities in chemoradiation trials. J. Clin. Oncol.25(26), 4096–4103 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scott C, Suh J, Stea B, Nabid A, Hackman J. Improved survival, quality of life, and quality-adjusted survival in breast cancer patients treated with efaproxiral (Efaproxyn) plus whole-brain radiation therapy for brain metastases. Am. J. Clin. Oncol.30(6), 580–587 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mehta MP, Rodrigus P, Terhaard CH et al. Survival and neurologic outcomes in a randomized trial of motexafin gadolinium and whole-brain radiation therapy in brain metastases. J. Clin. Oncol.21(13), 2529–2536 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hedde JP, Neuhaus T, Schuller H et al. A Phase I/II trial of topotecan and radiation therapy for brain metastases in patients with solid tumors. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys.68(3), 839–844 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mikkelsen T, Paleologos NA, Robinson PD et al. The role of prophylactic anticonvulsants in the management of brain metastases: a systematic review and evidence-based clinical practice guideline. J. Neurooncol.96(1), 97–102 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bromfield EB. Epilepsy in patients with brain tumors and other cancers. Rev. Neurol. Dis.1(Suppl. 1), S27–S33 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ranjan T, Abrey LE. Current management of metastatic brain disease. Neurotherapeutics6(3), 598–603 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noordijk EM, Vecht CJ, Haaxma-Reiche H et al. The choice of treatment of single brain metastasis should be based on extracranial tumor activity and age. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys.29(4), 711–717 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Al Shamy G, Sawaya R. Management of brain metastases: the indispensable role of surgery. J. Neurooncol.92(3), 275–282 (2009).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kalkanis SN, Kondziolka D, Gaspar LE et al. The role of surgical resection in the management of newly diagnosed brain metastases: a systematic review and evidence-based clinical practice guideline. J. Neurooncol.96(1), 33–43 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manon R, O’Neill A, Knisely J et al. Phase II trial of radiosurgery for one to three newly diagnosed brain metastases from renal cell carcinoma, melanoma, and sarcoma: an Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group study (E 6397). J. Clin. Oncol.23(34), 8870–8876 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wronski M, Maor MH, Davis BJ, Sawaya R, Levin VA. External radiation of brain metastases from renal carcinoma: a retrospective study of 119 patients from the M. D. Anderson Cancer Center. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys.37(4), 753–759 (1997).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mori Y, Kondziolka D, Flickinger JC, Kirkwood JM, Agarwala S, Lunsford LD. Stereotactic radiosurgery for cerebral metastatic melanoma: factors affecting local disease control and survival. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys.42(3), 581–589 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mori Y, Kondziolka D, Flickinger JC, Logan T, Lunsford LD. Stereotactic radiosurgery for brain metastasis from renal cell carcinoma. Cancer83(2), 344–353 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hart MG, Grant R, Walker M, Dickinson H. Surgical resection and whole brain radiation therapy versus whole brain radiation therapy alone for single brain metastases. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev.1, CD003292 (2005).
   Google Scholar
• Vecht CJ, Haaxma-Reiche H, Noordijk EM et al. Treatment of single brain metastasis: radiotherapy alone or combined with neurosurgery? Ann. Neurol.33(6), 583–590 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mintz AH, Kestle J, Rathbone MP et al. A randomized trial to assess the efficacy of surgery in addition to radiotherapy in patients with a single cerebral metastasis. Cancer78(7), 1470–1476 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bindal RK, Sawaya R, Leavens ME, Lee JJ. Surgical treatment of multiple brain metastases. J. Neurosurg.79(2), 210–216 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swinson BM, Friedman WA. Linear accelerator stereotactic radiosurgery for metastatic brain tumors: 17 years of experience at the University of Florida. Neurosurgery62(5), 1018–1031 (2008).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Suh JH. Stereotactic radiosurgery for the management of brain metastases. N. Engl. J. Med.362(12), 1119–1127 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maldaun MV, Aguiar PH, Lang F, Suki D, Wildrick D, Sawaya R. Radiosurgery in the treatment of brain metastases: critical review regarding complications. Neurosurg. Rev.31(1), 1–8 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muacevic A, Wowra B, Siefert A, Tonn JC, Steiger HJ, Kreth FW. Microsurgery plus whole brain irradiation versus gamma knife surgery alone for treatment of single metastases to the brain: a randomized controlled multicentre Phase III trial. J. Neurooncol.87(3), 299–307 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bindal AK, Bindal RK, Hess KR et al. Surgery versus radiosurgery in the treatment of brain metastasis. J. Neurosurg.84(5), 748–754 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andrews DW, Scott CB, Sperduto PW et al. Whole brain radiation therapy with or without stereotactic radiosurgery boost for patients with one to three brain metastases: Phase III results of the RTOG 9508 randomised trial. Lancet363(9422), 1665–1672 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kondziolka D, Patel A, Lunsford LD, Kassam A, Flickinger JC. Stereotactic radiosurgery plus whole brain radiotherapy versus radiotherapy alone for patients with multiple brain metastases. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys.45(2), 427–434 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chougule PB, Burton-Williams M, Saris S et al. Randomized treatment of brain metastasis with gamma knife radiosurgery, whole brain radiotherapy or both. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys.48(Suppl. 3), 114 (2000).
   Google Scholar
• O’Neill BP, Iturria NJ, Link MJ, Pollock BE, Ballman KV, O’Fallon JR. A comparison of surgical resection and stereotactic radiosurgery in the treatment of solitary brain metastases. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys.55(5), 1169–1176 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rades D, Kueter JD, Veninga T, Gliemroth J, Schild SE. Whole brain radiotherapy plus stereotactic radiosurgery (WBRT+SRS) versus surgery plus whole brain radiotherapy (OP+WBRT) for 1–3 brain metastases: results of a matched pair analysis. Eur. J. Cancer45(3), 400–404 (2009).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Suh JH. Stereotactic radiosurgery for the management of brain metastases. N. Engl. J. Med.362(12), 1119–1127 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberge D, Petrecca K, El Refae M, Souhami L. Whole-brain radiotherapy and tumor bed radiosurgery following resection of solitary brain metastases. J. Neurooncol.95(1), 95–99 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim PK, Ellis TL, Stieber VW et al. Gamma knife surgery targeting the resection cavity of brain metastasis that has progressed after whole-brain radiotherapy. J. Neurosurg.105(Suppl.), 75–78 (2006).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Iwai Y, Yamanaka K, Yasui T. Boost radiosurgery for treatment of brain metastases after surgical resections. Surg. Neurol.69(2), 181–186 (2008).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Soltys SG, Adler JR, Lipani JD et al. Stereotactic radiosurgery of the postoperative resection cavity for brain metastases. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys.70(1), 187–193 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mathieu D, Kondziolka D, Flickinger JC et al. Tumor bed radiosurgery after resection of cerebral metastases. Neurosurgery62(4), 817–823 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Do L, Pezner R, Radany E, Liu A, Staud C, Badie B. Resection followed by stereotactic radiosurgery to resection cavity for intracranial metastases. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys.73(2), 486–491 (2009).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Limbrick DD Jr, Lusis EA, Chicoine MR et al. Combined surgical resection and stereotactic radiosurgery for treatment of cerebral metastases. Surg. Neurol.71(3), 280–288 (2009).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Patchell RA, Tibbs PA, Regine WF et al. Postoperative radiotherapy in the treatment of single metastases to the brain: a randomized trial. JAMA280(17), 1485–1489 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aoyama H, Shirato H, Tago M et al. Stereotactic radiosurgery plus whole-brain radiation therapy vs stereotactic radiosurgery alone for treatment of brain metastases: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA295(21), 2483–2491 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang EL, Wefel JS, Hess KR et al. Neurocognition in patients with brain metastases treated with radiosurgery or radiosurgery plus whole-brain irradiation: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet Oncol.10(11), 1037–1044 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyers CA, Smith JA, Bezjak A et al. Neurocognitive function and progression in patients with brain metastases treated with whole-brain radiation and motexafin gadolinium: results of a randomized Phase III trial. J. Clin. Oncol.22(1), 157–165 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aoyama H, Tago M, Kato N et al. Neurocognitive function of patients with brain metastasis who received either whole brain radiotherapy plus stereotactic radiosurgery or radiosurgery alone. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys.68(5), 1388–1395 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Regine WF, Huhn JL, Patchell RA et al. Risk of symptomatic brain tumor recurrence and neurologic deficit after radiosurgery alone in patients with newly diagnosed brain metastases: results and implications. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys.52(2), 333–338 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mueller RP, Soffietti R, Abacioglu MU et al. Adjuvant whole-brain radiotherapy versus observation after radiosurgery or surgical resection of 1–3 cerebral metastases: results of the EORTC 22952–26001 study. Presented at: 2009 ASCO Annual Meeting. FL, USA, 29 May–2 June 2009.
   Google Scholar
• Mehta MP, Paleologos NA, Mikkelsen T et al. The role of chemotherapy in the management of newly diagnosed brain metastases: a systematic review and evidence-based clinical practice guideline. J. Neurooncol.96(1), 71–83 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peereboom DM. Chemotherapy in brain metastases. Neurosurgery57(5 Suppl.), S54–S65 (2005).
   Google Scholar
• Knisely JP, Berkey B, Chakravarti A et al. A Phase III study of conventional radiation therapy plus thalidomide versus conventional radiation therapy for multiple brain metastases (RTOG 0118). Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys.71(1), 79–86 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quantin X, Bozonnat MC, Pujol JL. Recursive Partitioning Analysis Groups II–III brain metastases of non-small cell lung cancer: a Phase II randomized study comparing two concurrent chemoradiotherapy regimens. J. Thorac. Oncol.5(6), 846–851 (2010).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gerstner ER, Fine RL. Increased permeability of the blood–brain barrier to chemotherapy in metastatic brain tumors: establishing a treatment paradigm. J. Clin. Oncol.25(16), 2306–2312 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weller M, Steinbach JP, Wick W. Temozolomide: a milestone in the pharmacotherapy of brain tumors. Future Oncol.1(6), 747–754 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Antonadou D, Paraskevaidis M, Sarris G et al. Phase II randomized trial of temozolomide and concurrent radiotherapy in patients with brain metastases. J. Clin. Oncol.20(17), 3644–3650 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chua D, Krzakowski M, Chouaid C et al. Whole-brain radiation therapy plus concomitant temozolomide for the treatment of brain metastases from non-small-cell lung cancer: a randomized, open-label Phase II study. Clin. Lung Cancer11(3), 176–181 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mikkelsen T, Anderson J, Doyle TJ et al. Phase I/II dose escalation trial of concurrent temozolomide and whole brain radiation therapy for multiple brain metastasis. J. Neurooncol. DOI: 10.1007/s11060-010-0187-8 (2010) (Epub ahead of print).
   Google Scholar
• Schild SE, Behl D, Markovic SN et al. Brain metastases from melanoma: is there a role for concurrent temozolomide in addition to whole brain radiation therapy? Am. J. Clin. Oncol. DOI: 10.1097/COC.0b013e3181c4c54b (2009) (Epub ahead of print).
   Google Scholar
• Olson JJ, Paleologos NA, Gaspar LE et al. The role of emerging and investigational therapies for metastatic brain tumors: a systematic review and evidence-based clinical practice guideline of selected topics. J. Neurooncol.96(1), 115–142 (2010).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ferber D. Bridging the blood–brain barrier: new methods improve the odds of getting drugs to the brain cells that need them. PLoS Biol.5(6), e169 (2007).
   Google Scholar
• Aguirre-Ghiso JA. Models, mechanisms and clinical evidence for cancer dormancy. Nat. Rev. Cancer7(11), 834–846 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin NU, Winer EP. Brain metastases: the HER2 paradigm. Clin. Cancer Res.13(6), 1648–1655 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin NU, Carey LA, Liu MC et al. Phase II trial of lapatinib for brain metastases in patients with human epidermal growth factor receptor 2-positive breast cancer. J. Clin. Oncol.26(12), 1993–1999 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slamon DJ, Leyland-Jones B, Shak S et al. Use of chemotherapy plus a monoclonal antibody against HER2 for metastatic breast cancer that overexpresses HER2. N. Engl. J. Med.344(11), 783–792 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Romond EH, Perez EA, Bryant J et al. Trastuzumab plus adjuvant chemotherapy for operable HER2-positive breast cancer. N. Engl. J. Med.353(16), 1673–1684 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leyland-Jones B. Human epidermal growth factor receptor 2-positive breast cancer and central nervous system metastases. J. Clin. Oncol.27(31), 5278–5286 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu J, Ljubimova JY, Inoue S et al. Phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitors increase Herceptin transport and treatment efficacy in mouse metastatic brain tumor models. PLoS ONE5(4), e10108 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krop IE, Beeram M, Modi S et al. Phase I study of trastuzumab-DM1, an HER2 antibody–drug conjugate, given every 3 weeks to patients with HER2-positive metastatic breast cancer. J. Clin. Oncol.28(16), 2698–2704 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Polli JW, Olson KL, Chism JP et al. An unexpected synergist role of P-glycoprotein and breast cancer resistance protein on the central nervous system penetration of the tyrosine kinase inhibitor lapatinib (N-{3-chloro-4-[(3-fluorobenzyl)oxy]phenyl}-6-[5-({[2-(methylsulfonyl)ethyl]amino }methyl)-2-furyl]-4-quinazolinamine; GW572016). Drug Metab. Dispos.37(2), 439–442 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cameron D, Casey M, Press M et al. A Phase III randomized comparison of lapatinib plus capecitabine versus capecitabine alone in women with advanced breast cancer that has progressed on trastuzumab: updated efficacy and biomarker analyses. Breast Cancer Res. Treat.112(3), 533–543 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geyer CE, Forster J, Lindquist D et al. Lapatinib plus capecitabine for HER2-positive advanced breast cancer. N. Engl. J. Med.355(26), 2733–2743 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gril B, Palmieri D, Bronder JL et al. Effect of lapatinib on the outgrowth of metastatic breast cancer cells to the brain. J. Natl Cancer Inst.100(15), 1092–1103 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fukuoka M, Yano S, Giaccone G et al. Multi-institutional randomized Phase II trial of gefitinib for previously treated patients with advanced non-small-cell lung cancer (The IDEAL 1 Trial) [corrected]. J. Clin. Oncol.21(12), 2237–2246 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kris MG, Natale RB, Herbst RS et al. Efficacy of gefitinib, an inhibitor of the epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase, in symptomatic patients with non-small cell lung cancer: a randomized trial. JAMA290(16), 2149–2158 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ceresoli GL, Cappuzzo F, Gregorc V, Bartolini S, Crino L, Villa E. Gefitinib in patients with brain metastases from non-small-cell lung cancer: a prospective trial. Ann. Oncol.15(7), 1042–1047 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chiu CH, Tsai CM, Chen YM, Chiang SC, Liou JL, Perng RP. Gefitinib is active in patients with brain metastases from non-small cell lung cancer and response is related to skin toxicity. Lung Cancer47(1), 129–138 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu C, Li YL, Wang ZM, Li Z, Zhang TX, Wei Z. Gefitinib as palliative therapy for lung adenocarcinoma metastatic to the brain. Lung Cancer57(3), 359–364 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shimato S, Mitsudomi T, Kosaka T et al.EGFR mutations in patients with brain metastases from lung cancer: association with the efficacy of gefitinib. Neuro. Oncol.8(2), 137–144 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hirsch FR, Herbst RS, Olsen C et al. Increased EGFR gene copy number detected by fluorescent in situ hybridization predicts outcome in non-small-cell lung cancer patients treated with cetuximab and chemotherapy. J. Clin. Oncol.26(20), 3351–3357 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katayama T, Shimizu J, Suda K et al. Efficacy of erlotinib for brain and leptomeningeal metastases in patients with lung adenocarcinoma who showed initial good response to gefitinib. J. Thorac. Oncol.4(11), 1415–1419 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yano S, Shinohara H, Herbst RS et al. Expression of vascular endothelial growth factor is necessary but not sufficient for production and growth of brain metastasis. Cancer Res.60(17), 4959–4967 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hurwitz H, Fehrenbacher L, Novotny W et al. Bevacizumab plus irinotecan, fluorouracil, and leucovorin for metastatic colorectal cancer. N. Engl. J. Med.350(23), 2335–2342 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Escudier B, Pluzanska A, Koralewski P et al. Bevacizumab plus interferon α-2a for treatment of metastatic renal cell carcinoma: a randomised, double-blind Phase III trial. Lancet370(9605), 2103–2111 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller K, Wang M, Gralow J et al. Paclitaxel plus bevacizumab versus paclitaxel alone for metastatic breast cancer. N. Engl. J. Med.357(26), 2666–2676 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sandler A, Gray R, Perry MC et al. Paclitaxel–carboplatin alone or with bevacizumab for non-small-cell lung cancer. N. Engl. J. Med.355(24), 2542–2550 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson DH, Fehrenbacher L, Novotny WF et al. Randomized Phase II trial comparing bevacizumab plus carboplatin and paclitaxel with carboplatin and paclitaxel alone in previously untreated locally advanced or metastatic non-small-cell lung cancer. J. Clin. Oncol.22(11), 2184–2191 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Meir EG, Hadjipanayis CG, Norden AD, Shu HK, Wen PY, Olson JJ. Exciting new advances in neuro-oncology: the avenue to a cure for malignant glioma. CA Cancer J. Clin.60(3), 166–193 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gordon MS, Margolin K, Talpaz M et al. Phase I safety and pharmacokinetic study of recombinant human anti-vascular endothelial growth factor in patients with advanced cancer. J. Clin. Oncol.19(3), 843–850 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Socinski MA, Langer CJ, Huang JE et al. Safety of bevacizumab in patients with non-small-cell lung cancer and brain metastases. J. Clin. Oncol.27(31), 5255–5261 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Besse B, Lasserre SF, Compton P, Huang J, Augustus S, Rohr UP. Bevacizumab safety in patients with central nervous system metastases. Clin. Cancer Res.16(1), 269–278 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Labidi SI, Bachelot T, Ray-Coquard I et al. Bevacizumab and paclitaxel for breast cancer patients with central nervous system metastases: a case series. Clin. Breast Cancer.9(2), 118–121 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Novello O, Abrey LE, Grossi F. Administration of sunitinib to patients with nonsmall cell lung cancer and irradiated brain metastases: a Phase II trial. J. Clin. Oncol.27(15 Suppl.) (2009) (Abstract 8077).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gendron RL. A plasticity for blood vessel remodeling is defined by pericyte coverage of the preformed endothelial network and is regulated by PDGF-B and VEGF. Surv. Ophthalmol.44(2), 184–185 (1999).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hellberg C, Ostman A, Heldin CH. PDGF and vessel maturation. Recent Results Cancer Res.180, 103–114 (2010).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shikada Y, Yonemitsu Y, Koga T et al. Platelet-derived growth factor-AA is an essential and autocrine regulator of vascular endothelial growth factor expression in non-small cell lung carcinomas. Cancer Res.65(16), 7241–7248 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Potapova O, Laird AD, Nannini MA et al. Contribution of individual targets to the antitumor efficacy of the multitargeted receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor SU11248. Mol. Cancer Ther.5(5), 1280–1289 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hasumi Y, Klosowska-Wardega A, Furuhashi M, Ostman A, Heldin CH, Hellberg C. Identification of a subset of pericytes that respond to combination therapy targeting PDGF and VEGF signaling. Int. J. Cancer121(12), 2606–2614 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bergers G, Song S, Meyer-Morse N, Bergsland E, Hanahan D. Benefits of targeting both pericytes and endothelial cells in the tumor vasculature with kinase inhibitors. J. Clin. Invest.111(9), 1287–1295 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jain RK. Normalization of tumor vasculature: an emerging concept in antiangiogenic therapy. Science307(5706), 58–62 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bergers G, Hanahan D. Modes of resistance to anti-angiogenic therapy. Nat. Rev. Cancer8(8), 592–603 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ebos JM, Lee CR, Cruz-Munoz W, Bjarnason GA, Christensen JG, Kerbel RS. Accelerated metastasis after short-term treatment with a potent inhibitor of tumor angiogenesis. Cancer Cell15(3), 232–239 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paez-Ribes M, Allen E, Hudock J et al. Antiangiogenic therapy elicits malignant progression of tumors to increased local invasion and distant metastasis. Cancer Cell15(3), 220–231 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Massard C, Zonierek J, Gross-Goupil M, Fizazi K, Szczylik C, Escudier B. Incidence of brain metastases in renal cell carcinoma treated with sorafenib. Ann. Oncol.21(5), 1027–1031 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lamszus K, Brockmann MA, Eckerich C et al. Inhibition of glioblastoma angiogenesis and invasion by combined treatments directed against vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-2, epidermal growth factor receptor, and vascular endothelial-cadherin. Clin. Cancer Res.11(13), 4934–4940 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slotman B, Faivre-Finn C, Kramer G et al. Prophylactic cranial irradiation in extensive small-cell lung cancer. N. Engl. J. Med.357(7), 664–672 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blanchard P, Le Pechoux C. Prophylactic cranial irradiation in lung cancer. Curr. Opin. Oncol.22(2), 94–101 (2010).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Auperin A, Arriagada R, Pignon JP et al. Prophylactic cranial irradiation for patients with small-cell lung cancer in complete remission. Prophylactic Cranial Irradiation Overview Collaborative Group. N. Engl. J. Med.341(7), 476–484 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laplanche A, Monnet I, Santos-Miranda JA et al. Controlled clinical trial of prophylactic cranial irradiation for patients with small-cell lung cancer in complete remission. Lung Cancer21(3), 193–201 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Arriagada R, Le Chevalier T, Borie F et al. Prophylactic cranial irradiation for patients with small-cell lung cancer in complete remission. J. Natl Cancer Inst.87(3), 183–190 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Le Pechoux C, Dunant A, Senan S et al. Standard-dose versus higher-dose prophylactic cranial irradiation (PCI) in patients with limited-stage small-cell lung cancer in complete remission after chemotherapy and thoracic radiotherapy (PCI 99-01, EORTC 22003-08004, RTOG 0212, and IFCT 99-01): a randomised clinical trial. Lancet Oncol.10(5), 467–474 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Topkan E, Yildirim BA, Selek U, Yavuz MN. Cranial prophylactic irradiation in locally advanced non-small cell lung carcinoma: current status and future perspectives. Oncology76(3), 220–228 (2009).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Huang F, Alrefae M, Langleben A, Roberge D. Prophylactic cranial irradiation in advanced breast cancer: a case for caution. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys.73(3), 752–758 (2009).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Slotman BJ, Mauer ME, Bottomley A et al. Prophylactic cranial irradiation in extensive disease small-cell lung cancer: short-term health-related quality of life and patient reported symptoms: results of an international Phase III randomized controlled trial by the EORTC Radiation Oncology and Lung Cancer Groups. J. Clin. Oncol.27(1), 78–84 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winkler F, Kozin SV, Tong RT et al. Kinetics of vascular normalization by VEGFR2 blockade governs brain tumor response to radiation: role of oxygenation, angiopoietin-1, and matrix metalloproteinases. Cancer Cell6(6), 553–563 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Therasse P, Eisenhauer EA, Verweij J. RECIST revisited: a review of validation studies on tumour assessment. Eur. J. Cancer42(8), 1031–1039 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van’t Veer LJ, Dai H, van de Vijver MJ et al. Gene expression profiling predicts clinical outcome of breast cancer. Nature415(6871), 530–536 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sneed PK, Suh JH, Goetsch SJ et al. A multi-institutional review of radiosurgery alone vs. radiosurgery with whole brain radiotherapy as the initial management of brain metastases. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys.53(3), 519–526 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agboola O, Benoit B, Cross P et al. Prognostic factors derived from recursive partition analysis (RPA) of Radiation Therapy Oncology Group (RTOG) brain metastases trials applied to surgically resected and irradiated brain metastatic cases. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys.42(1), 155–159 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diener H, Putzki N. Leitlinien für Diagnostik und Therapie in der Neurologie. Georg Thieme Verlag, Stuttgart, Germany, 654 ff (2008).
   Google Scholar