Concepts guiding therapy for hypertension in children

References

• McNiece KL, Poffenbarger TS, Turner JL, Franco KD, Sorof JM, Portman RJ. Prevalence of hypertension and pre-hypertension among adolescents. J. Pediatr.150, 640–644 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hansen ML, Gunn PW, Kaelber DC. Underdiagnosis of hypertension in children and adolescents. JAMA298, 874–879 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sorof JM, Lai D, Turner J, Poffenbarger T, Portman RJ. Overweight, ethnicity, and the prevalence of hypertension in school-aged children. Pediatrics113, 475–482 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chiolero A, Cachat F, Burnier M, Paccaud F, Bovet P. Prevalence of hypertension in schoolchildren based on repeated measurements and association with overweight. J. Hypertens.25, 2209–2217 (2007)
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ostechega Y, Carroll M, Pineas RJ, McDowell MA, Louis T, Tiler T. Trends of elevated blood pressure among children and adolescents: data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1988–2006. Am. J. Hypertens.22, 59–67 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muntner P, He, J, Cutler JA, Wildman RP, Whelton PK. Trends in blood pressure among children and adolescents. JAMA291, 2107–2113 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Din-Dzietham R, Lui Y, Bielo M-V, Shamsa F. High blood pressure trends in children and adolescents in national surveys, 1963–2002. Circulation116, 1488–1496 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Falkner B, Gidding SS, Ramirez-Garnica G, Wiltrout SA, West D, Rappaport EB. The relationship of body mass index and blood pressure in primary care pediatric patients. J. Pediatr.148, 195–200 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ogden CL, Carroll MD, Flegal KM. High body mass index for age among US children and adolescents, 2003–2006. JAMA299, 2401–2405 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eichner JE, Moore WE, Perveen G, Kobza CE, Abbott KE, Stephens AL. Overweight and obesity in an ethnically diverse rural school district: the Healthy Kids Project. Obesity16, 501–504 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Norris KC, Tareen N, Martins D, Vaziri ND. Implications of ethnicity for the treatment of hypertensive kidney disease, with an emphasis on African Americans. Nat. Clin. Pract. Nephrol.4, 538–549 (2008).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wang X, Poole JC, Treiber FA, Harshfield GA, Hanevold CD, Snieder H. Ethnic and gender differences in ambulatory blood pressure trajectories. Results from a 15-year longitudinal study in youth and young adults. Circulation114, 2780–2787 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luycnx VA, Brenner BM. LBW, nephron number and kidney disease. Kidney Int.68(Suppl. 97), 68–77 (2005).
   Google Scholar
• Barker DJ, Osmond C. Infant mortality, childhood nutrition, and ischaemic heart disease in England and Wales. Lancet1(8489), 1077–1081 (1986).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zandi-Nejad K, Luycnx VA, Brenner BM. Adult hypertension and kidney disease. The role of fetal programming. Hypertension47(Pt 2), 502–508 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keller G, Zimmer G, Mall G, Ritz E, Amann K. Nephron number in patients with primary hypertension. N. Engl. J. Med.348(2), 101–108 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mañalich R, Reyes L, Heuera M, Melendi C, Fundora I. The relationship between weight at birth and the number and size of renal glomeruli in humans. A histomorphometric study. Kidney Int.58, 770–773 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hinchliffe SF, Lynch MR, Sargent PH, Howard CV, Van Velzen D. The effect of intrauterine growth retardation on the development of renal nephrons. BJOG99, 296–301 (1992).
   Google Scholar
• Vehaskari VM, Aviles DH, Manning J. Prenatal programming of adult hypertension in the rat. Kidney Int.59, 238–245 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woods LL, Ingelfinger JR, Nyengaard JR, Rasch R. Maternal protein restriction suppresses the newborn renin–angiotensin system and programs adult hypertension in rats. Pediatr. Res.49(4), 460–467 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simonetti GD, Raio L, Surbek D, Nelle M, Frey FJ, Gohaupt MG. Salt sensitivity of children with low birth weight. Hypertension52, 625–630 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huxley R, Neil A, Collins R. Unraveling the fetal origins hypothesis: is there really an inverse association between birth weight and subsequent BP? Lancet360, 659–665 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shankarar S, Das A, Bauer CR et al. Fetal origin of childhood disease: intrauterine growth restriction in term infants and risk for hypertension at 6 years of age. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med.160, 977–981 (2006)
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Falkner B, Hulman S, Kushner H. Effect of birth weight on blood pressure and body size in adolescence. Hypertension43, 203–207 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doyle LW, Fabor B, Callanan C, Morley R. Blood pressure in late adolescence and very LBW. Pediatrics111, 252–257 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hemachandra AH, Klebanoff MA, Duggan AK, Hardy JB, Furth SL. The association between intrauterine growth restriction in the full-term infant and high blood pressure at age 7 years: results from the Collaborative Perinatal Project. Int. J. Epidemiol.35, 871–877 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franco MCP, Chistofalo DMJ, Sawaya AL, Ajzen SA, Sesso R. Effects of LBW in 8- to 13- year old children. Implications in endothelial function and uric acid levels. Hypertension48, 45–50 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cruickshank JK, Mzayek F, Liu L et al. Origins of the “black/white” difference in BP. Roles of birth weight, postnatal growth, early blood pressure, and adolescent body size. The Bogalusa Heart Study. Circulation111, 1932–1937 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rostand SG, Cliver SP, Goldenberg RL. Racial disparities in the association of foetal growth retardation to childhood blood pressure. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant.20, 1592–1597 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hemachandra AH, Klebanoff MA, Furth SL. Racial disparities in the association between birth weight in the term infant and blood pressure at age 7 years: results form the Collaborative Perinatal Project. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol.17, 2576–2581 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hughson MD, Douglas-Denton R, Bertram JF, Hoy WE. Hypertension, glomerular number, and birth weight in African Americans and white subjects in the southeastern United States. Kidney Int.69, 671–678 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alexander BT, Ojeda NB. Slow prenatal growth and accelerated postnatal growth: critical influences on adult blood pressure. Hypertension52, 613–614 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ben-Shlomo Y, McCarthy A, Hughes R, Tilling K, Davies D, Davey Smith G. Immediate postnatal growth is associated with blood pressure in young adulthood: the Barry Caerphilly Growth Study. Hypertension52, 638–644 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rotteveel J, Van Weissenbruch MM, Twisk JWR, Delemarre-Van de Waal HA. Infant and childhood growth patterns, insulin sensitivity, and blood pressure in prematurely born young adults. Pediatrics122, 313–321 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Irving RJ, Belton NR, Elton RA, Walker BR. Adult cardiovascular risk factors in premature babies. Lancet355(9221), 2135–2136 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National High BP Education Program Working Group on High BP in Children and Adolescents. Fourth Report on Diagnosis, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure in Children and Adolescents. Pediatrics114(2 Suppl. 4th report), 556–576 (2004).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen X, Wang Y. Tracking of BP from childhood to adulthood: a systematic review and meta-regression analysis. Circulation117, 3171–3180 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Srinivasan SR, Myers L, Berenson GS. Changes in metabolic syndrome variables since childhood in prehypertensive and hypertensive subjects. The Bogalusa Heart Study. Hypertension48, 33–39 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Israeli E, Korzets Z, Tekes-Manova D. Blood-pressure categories in adolescence predict development of hypertension in accordance with the European guidelines. Am. J. Hypertens.20(6), 705–709 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Falkner B, Gidding SS, Portman R, Rosner B. Blood pressure variability and classification of prehypertension and hypertension in adolescence. Pediatrics122(2), 238–242 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Podoll A, Grenier M, Croix B, Feig D. Inaccuracy in pediatric outpatient blood pressure measurement. Pediatrics119, E538–E543 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stewart JN, McGillivray D, Sussman J, Foster B. The value of routine blood pressure measurement in children presenting to the emergency room with nonurgent problems. J. Pediatr.153, 478–483 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sorof JM, Poffenbarger T, Franco K, Portman R. Evaluation of white coat hypertension in children: importance of the definitions of normal ambulatory BP and the severity of casual hypertension. Am. J. Hypertens.14, 855–860 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kavey R-E W, Kveselis DA, Atallah N, Smith FC. White coat hypertension in childhood: evidence of end-organ effect. J. Pediatr.150, 491–497 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lande MB, Meagher CC, Fisher SG, Belani P, Wang H, Rashid M. Left ventricular mass index in children with white coat hypertension. J. Pediatr.153, 50–54 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Urbina E, Alpert B, Flynn J et al. Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring in children and adolescents: recommendations for standard assessment. A scientific statement from the American Heart Association Atherosclerosis, Hypertension and Obesity in Youth Committee of the Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young and the Council for High Blood Pressure Research. Hypertension552, 433–451 (2008).
   Google Scholar
• Parati G, Stergiou GS, Asmar R et al. European Society of HTN guidelines for monitoring blood pressure at home: a summary report of the Second International Consensus Conference on Home Blood Pressure Monitoring. J. Hypertens.26, 1505–1530 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lurbe E, Parati G. Out-of-office blood pressure measurement in children and adolescents. J. Hypertens.26, 1536–1539 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dickinson HO, Mason JM, Nicolson DJ et al. Lifestyle interventions to reduce raised blood pressure: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. J. Hypertens.24, 215–233 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gidding SS, Barton BA, Dorgan JA et al. Higher self-reported physical activity is associated with lower systolic blood pressure: the Dietary Intervention Study in Childhood (DISC). Pediatrics118, 2388–2393 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mu JJ, Liu ZQ, Liu WM et al. Reduction of blood pressure with calcium and potassium supplementation in children with salt sensitivity: a 2-year double blinded placebo-controlled trial. J. Hum. Hypertens.19, 479–483 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Couch SC, Saelens BE, Levin L, Dart K, Falciglia G, Daniels SR. The efficacy of a clinic-based behavioral nutrition intervention emphasizing a DASH-type diet for adolescents with elevated blood pressure. J. Pediatr.152, 494–501 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mark AE, Janssen I. Dose-response relation between physical activity and blood pressure in youth. Med. Sci. Sports. Exerc.40, 1007–1012 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Epstein LH, Roemmich JN, Robinson JL et al. A randomized trial of the effects of reducing television viewing and computer use on body mass index in young children. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med.162(3), 239–245 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strong WB, Malina RM, Bumkie CJR et al. Evidence based physical activity for school-age youth. J. Pediatr.146, 732–737 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sorof JM, Urbina EM, Cunningham RJ et al. Screening for eligibility in the study of antihypertensive medication in children: experience from the Ziac Pediatric Hypertension Study. Am. J. Hypertens.14, 783–787 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lande MB, Carson NL, Roy J, Meagher CC. Effects of childhood primary hypertension on carotid intima media thickness. A matched controlled study. Hypertension48, 40–44 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lim SM, Kim HC, Lee HS, Lee JY, Suh M, Ahn SV. Association between blood pressure and carotid intima-media thickness. J. Pediatr.154, 667–671 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khoury PR, Mitsnefes M, Daniels SR, Kimball TR. Age-specific reference intervals for indexed left ventricular mass in children. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. DOI:10.1016/j.echo.2009.03.003 (2009) (Epub ahead of print).
   Google Scholar
• Assadi F. Effect of microalbuminuria lowering on regression of left ventricular hypertrophy in children and adolescents with essential hypertension. Pediatr Cardiol.28, 27–33 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seeman T, Gilík J, Vondrák K et al. Regression of left ventricular-hypertrophy in children and adolescents with hypertension during ramipril monotherapy. Am. J. Hypertens.20, 990–996 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ditto B, Séguin JR, Tremblay RE. Neuropsychological characteristics of adolescent boys differing in risk for high blood pressure. Ann. Behav. Med.31(3), 231–237 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lande MB, Kaczorowski JM, Auinger P. Elevated blood pressure and decreased cognitive function among school-age children and adolescents in the United States. J. Pediatr.143, 720–724 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lande MB, Adams H, Falkner B et al. Parental assessments of internalizing and externalizing behavior and executive function in children and primary hypertension. J. Pediatr.154, 207–212 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller RE, Shapiro AP, King HE, Ginchereau EH, Hosutt JA. Effect of antihypertensive treatment on behavioral consequences of elevated blood pressure. Hypertension6(2 Pt 1), 202–208 (1984).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shapiro AP, Miller RE, King HE, Ginchereau EH, Fitzgibbon K. Behavioral consequences of mild hypertension. Hypertension4(3), 355–360 (1982).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muldoon MF, Waldstein SR, Ryan CM et al. Effects of six anti-hypertensive medications on cognitive performance. J. Hypertens.20, 1643–1652 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Falkner B, Koffler S, Lowenthal DT. Effects of antihypertensive drugs on cognitive function in adolescents. Pediatr. Pharmacol.4, 239–244 (1984).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wharton W, Hirshman E, Merritt P, Stangl B, Scanlin K, Krieger L. Lower blood pressure correlated with poorer performance on visuospatial attention tasks in younger individuals. Biol. Psychol.73, 227–234 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flynn JT, Daniels SR. Pharmacologic treatment of hypertension in children and adolescents. J. Pediatr.149, 746–754 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooper WO, Hernandez-Diaz S, Arbogast PG et al. Major congenital malformations after first-trimester exposure to ACE inhibitors. N. Engl. J. Med.354(23), 2443–2451 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR et al. The Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure: the JNC 7 report. JAMA289(19), 2560–2572 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Messerli FH, Grossman E, Leonetti G. Antihypertensive therapy and new onset diabetes. J. Hypertens.22, 1845–1847 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elliott WJ, Meyer PM. Incident diabetes in clinical trials of antihypertensive drugs: a network meta-analysis. Lancet369, 201–207 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andraws R, Brown DL. Effect of inhibition of the renin–angiotensin system on development of Type 2 diabetes mellitus (meta-analysis of randomized trials). Am. J. Cardiol.99, 1006–1012 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reungjui S, Hu H, Mu W et al. Thiazide-induced subtle renal injury not observed in states of equivalent hypokalemia. Kidney Int.72, 1483–1492 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woroniechi RP, Flynn JT. How are hypertensive children evaluated and managed?: a survey of North American pediatric nephrologists. Pediatr. Nephrol.20, 791–797 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laragh J. Laragh’s lessons in pathophysiology and clinical pearls for treatment of hypertension. Am. J. Hypertens.14(6 Pt 1), 491–503 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Veterans Administration Cooperative Study Group on Antihypertensive Agents. Racial differences in response to low-dose captopril are abolished by the addition of hydrochlorothiazide. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol.14(Suppl. 2), S97–S101 (1982).
   Google Scholar
• Weir MR, Chrysant SG, McCarron DA et al. Influence of race and dietary salt on the antihypertensive efficacy of an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor or a calcium channel antagonist in salt-sensitive hypertensives. Hypertension31, 1088–1096 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li JS, Baker-Smith CM, Smith PB et al. Racial differences in blood pressure response to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors in children: a meta-analysis. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther.84(3), 315–319 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gibbs CR, Lip GY, Beevers DG. Angioedema due to ACE inhibitors: increased risk in patients of African descent. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol.48(6), 861–865 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leenen FHH, Nwachuku CE, Black HR et al.; Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT) Collaborative Research Group. Clinical events in high-risk hypertensive patients randomly assigned to calcium channel blocker versus angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor in the antihypertensive and lipid-lowering treatment to prevent heart attack trial. Hypertension48, 374–384 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haymore BR, Yoon J, Mikita CP, Klote MM, DeZee KJ. Risk of angioedema with angiotensin receptor blockers in patients with prior angioedema associated with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors: a meta-analysis. Ann. Allergy Asthma Immunol.101, 495–499 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benjamin DK, Smith B, Jadhav P et al. Pediatric antihypertensive trial failure: analysis of end points and dose range. Hypertension51, 834–840 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Canter PH, Ernst E. Insufficient evidence to conclude whether or not transcendental meditation decreases blood pressure: results of a systematic review of randomized clinical trials. J. Hypertens.22(11), 2049–2054 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barnes VA, Pendergrast RA, Harshfield GA, Treiber FA. Impact of breathing awareness meditation on ambulatory blood pressure and sodium handling in prehypertensive African American adolescents. Ethn. Dis.18, 1–5 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feig DI, Kang D-H, Johnson RJ. Uric acid and cardiovascular risk. N. Engl. J. Med.359(17), 1811–1821 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feig DI, Soletsky B, Johnson RJ. Effect of allopurinol on BP of adolescents with newly diagnosed essential hypertension. A randomized trial. JAMA300(8), 924–932 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harshfield GA, Dong Y, Kapuku GK, Zhu H, Hanevold CD. Stress-induced sodium retention and hypertension: a review and hypothesis. Curr. Hypertens. Rep.11, 29–34 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ge D, Su S, Zhu H et al. Stress-induced sodium excretion. A new intermediate phenotype to study the early genetic etiology of hypertension? Hypertension53, 262–269 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harshfield G, Wilson M. Hanevold C et al. Impaired stress-induced pressure natriuresis increases cardiovascular load in African American youths. Am. J. Hypertens.15, 903–906 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harshfield GA, Hanevold C, Castles M. The effect of an angiotensin receptor antagonist on stress induced pressure natriuresis. Presented at: American Society of Hypertension, 23rd Annual Scientific Meeting. New Orleans, LA, USA, 14–17 May 2008.
   Google Scholar
• Arnett DK, Claas SA, Glasser SP. Pharmacogenetics of antihypertensive treatment. Vascul. Pharmacol.44, 107–118 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suonsyrjä T, Hannila-Handelberg T, Fodstad H, Donner K, Kontula K, Hiltunen TP. Renin-angiotensin system and α-adducin gene polymorphisms and their relation to response to antihypertensive drugs: results from the GENRES study. Am. J. Hypertens.22, 169–175 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manunta P, Lavery G, Lanzani C et al. Physiological interaction between α-adducin and WNK1-NEDD4L pathways on sodium-related BP regulation. Hypertension52, 366–372 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Julius S, Nesbitt SD, Egan BM et al. Feasibility of treating prehypertension with an angiotensin-receptor blocker. N. Engl. J. Med.354, 1685–1697 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Portman RJ and Nesbitt S. Would preventive therapy in childhood prevent cardiovascular disease? J. Clin. Hypertens.9, 739–741 (2007).
   Google Scholar