139
Views
12
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Theme: Cardiac Imaging - Review

Advances in noninvasive imaging for evaluating clinical risk and guiding therapy in carotid atherosclerosis

, &
Pages 37-53 | Published online: 10 Jan 2014

References

  • Abbott AL, Bladin CF, Levi CR, Chambers BR. What should we do with asymptomatic carotid stenosis? Int. J. Stroke2(1), 27–39 (2007).
  • Rothwell PM, Eliasziw M, Gutnikov SA et al. Analysis of pooled data from the randomised controlled trials of endarterectomy for symptomatic carotid stenosis. Lancet361(9352), 107–116 (2003).
  • Bonifati DM, Lorenzi A, Ermani M et al. Carotid stenosis as predictor of stroke after transient ischemic attacks. J. Neurol. Sci.303(1–2), 85–89 (2011).
  • Wardlaw JM, Stevenson MD, Chappell F et al. Carotid artery imaging for secondary stroke prevention: both imaging modality and rapid access to imaging are important. Stroke40(11), 3511–3517 (2009).
  • Wardlaw JM, Chappell FM, Best JJ, Wartolowska K, Berry E; NHS Research and Development Health Technology Assessment Carotid Stenosis Imaging Group. Non-invasive imaging compared with intra-arterial angiography in the diagnosis of symptomatic carotid stenosis: a meta-analysis. Lancet367(9521), 1503–1512 (2006).
  • Naylor AR, Gaines PA, Rothwell PM. Who benefits most from intervention for asymptomatic carotid stenosis: patients or professionals? Eur. J. Vasc. Endovasc. Surg.37(6), 625–632 (2009).
  • Woodward M, Welsh P, Rumley A, Tunstall-Pedoe H, Lowe GD. Do inflammatory biomarkers add to the discrimination of cardiovascular disease after allowing for social deprivation? Results from a 10-year cohort study in Glasgow, Scotland. Eur. Heart J.31(21), 2669–2675 (2010).
  • Rothwell PM, Goldstein LB. Carotid endarterectomy for asymptomatic carotid stenosis – asymptomatic carotid surgery trial. Stroke35(10), 2425–2427 (2004).
  • Abbott AL. Medical (nonsurgical) intervention alone is now best for prevention of stroke associated with asymptomatic severe carotid stenosis – results of a systematic review and analysis. Stroke40(10), E573–E583 (2009).
  • Abbott AL, Donnan GA. Does the ‘high risk’ patient with asymptomatic carotid stenosis really exist? Eur. J. Vasc. Endovasc. Surg.35(5), 524–533 (2008).
  • Endarterectomy for asymptomatic carotid artery stenosis. Executive Committee for the Asymptomatic Carotid Atherosclerosis Study. JAMA273(18), 1421–1428 (1995).
  • Woo K, Garg J, Hye RJ, Dilley RB. Contemporary results of carotid endarterectomy for asymptomatic carotid stenosis. Stroke41(5), 975–979 (2010).
  • Marquardt L, Geraghty OC, Mehta Z, Rothwell PM. Low risk of ipsilateral stroke in patients with asymptomatic carotid stenosis on best medical treatment a prospective, population-based study. Stroke41(1), E11–E17 (2010).
  • Markus H. Revascularization of asymptomatic high-grade carotid stenosis is still indicated in some cases. Stroke42(4), 1152–1153 (2011).
  • Goessens BMB, Visseren FLJ, Kappelle LJ, Algra A, Van Der Graaf Y. Asymptomatic carotid artery stenosis and the risk of new vascular events in patients with manifest arterial disease – the SMART study. Stroke38(5), 1470–1475 (2007).
  • Inzitari D, Eliasziw M, Gates P et al. The causes and risk of stroke in patients with asymptomatic internal-carotid-artery stenosis. North American Symptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trial Collaborators. N. Engl. J. Med.342(23), 1693–1700 (2000).
  • Korshunov VA, Schwartz SM, Berk BC. Vascular remodeling: hemodynamic and biochemical mechanisms underlying Glagov’s phenomenon. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol.27(8), 1722–1728 (2007).
  • Astor BC, Sharrett AR, Coresh J, Chambless LE, Wasserman BA. Remodeling of carotid arteries detected with MR imaging: Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Carotid MRI study. Radiology256(3), 879–886 (2010).
  • Bots ML, Hoes AW, Koudstaal PJ, Hofman A, Grobbee DE. Common carotid intima–media thickness and risk of stroke and myocardial infarction: the Rotterdam Study. Circulation96(5), 1432–1437 (1997).
  • De Groot E, Van Leuven SI, Duivenvoorden R et al. Measurement of carotid intima–media thickness to assess progression and regression of atherosclerosis. Nat. Clin. Pract. Cardiovasc. Med.5(5), 280–288 (2008).
  • Bots ML, Dijk JM, Oren A, Grobbee DE. Carotid intima–media thickness, arterial stiffness and risk of cardiovascular disease: current evidence. J. Hypertens.20(12), 2317–2325 (2002).
  • Bots ML, Baldassarre D, Simon A et al. Carotid intima–media thickness and coronary atherosclerosis: weak or strong relations? Eur. Heart J.28(4), 398–406 (2007).
  • Mancini GB, Dahlof B, Diez J. Surrogate markers for cardiovascular disease: structural markers. Circulation109(25 Suppl. 1), IV22–IV30 (2004).
  • Chambless LE, Heiss G, Shahar E, Earp MJ, Toole J. Prediction of ischemic stroke risk in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study. Am. J. Epidemiol.160(3), 259–269 (2004).
  • Simon A, Megnien JL, Chironi G. The value of carotid intima–media thickness for predicting cardiovascular risk. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol.30(2), 182–185 (2010).
  • Prati P, Tosetto A, Vanuzzo D et al. Carotid intima–media thickness and plaques can predict the occurrence of ischemic cerebrovascular events. Stroke39(9), 2470–2476 (2008).
  • Del Sol AI, Moons KG, Hollander M et al. Is carotid intima–media thickness useful in cardiovascular disease risk assessment? The Rotterdam Study. Stroke32(7), 1532–1538 (2001).
  • Nambi V, Chambless L, Folsom AR et al. Carotid intima–media thickness and presence or absence of plaque improves prediction of coronary heart disease risk: the ARIC (Atherosclerosis Risk In Communities) study. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.55(15), 1600–1607 (2010).
  • Kalogeropoulos A, Terzis G, Chrysanthopoulou A, Hahalis G, Siablis D, Alexopoulos D. Risk for transient ischemic attacks is mainly determined by intima–media thickness and carotid plaque echogenicity. Atherosclerosis192(1), 190–196 (2007).
  • Mathiesen EB, Johnsen SH. Ultrasonographic measurements of subclinical carotid atherosclerosis in prediction of ischemic stroke. Acta Neurol. Scand. Suppl. (189), 68–72 (2009).
  • Goldberger ZD, Valle JA, Dandekar VK, Chan PS, Ko DT, Nallamothu BK. Are changes in carotid intima–media thickness related to risk of nonfatal myocardial infarction? A critical review and meta-regression analysis. Am. Heart J.160(4), 701–714 (2010).
  • Yu CM, Zhang Q, Lam L et al. Comparison of intensive and low-dose atorvastatin therapy in the reduction of carotid intimal–medial thickness in patients with coronary heart disease. Heart93(8), 933–939 (2007).
  • Costanzo P, Perrone-Filardi P, Vassallo E et al. Does carotid intima–media thickness regression predict reduction of cardiovascular events? A meta-analysis of 41 randomized trials. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.56(24), 2006–2020 (2010).
  • Sidhu JS, Kaposzta Z, Markus HS, Kaski JC. Effect of rosiglitazone on common carotid intima–media thickness progression in coronary artery disease patients without diabetes mellitus. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol.24(5), 930–934 (2004).
  • Langenfeld MR, Forst T, Hohberg C et al. Pioglitazone decreases carotid intima–media thickness independently of glycemic control in patients with Type 2 diabetes mellitus: results from a controlled randomized study. Circulation111(19), 2525–2531 (2005).
  • Mazzone T, Meyer PM, Feinstein SB et al. Effect of pioglitazone compared with glimepiride on carotid intima–media thickness in Type 2 diabetes: a randomized trial. JAMA296(21), 2572–2581 (2006).
  • Minamikawa J, Tanaka S, Yamauchi M, Inoue D, Koshiyama H. Potent inhibitory effect of troglitazone on carotid arterial wall thickness in Type 2 diabetes. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.83(5), 1818–1820 (1998).
  • Koshiyama H, Shimono D, Kuwamura N, Minamikawa J, Nakamura Y. Rapid communication: inhibitory effect of pioglitazone on carotid arterial wall thickness in Type 2 diabetes. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.86(7), 3452–3456 (2001).
  • Hodis HN, Mack WJ, Zheng L et al. Effect of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma agonist treatment on subclinical atherosclerosis in patients with insulin-requiring Type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care29(7), 1545–1553 (2006).
  • O’Leary DH, Reuwer AQ, Nissen SN et al. Effect of rimonabant on carotid intima–media thickness (CIMT) progression in patients with abdominal obesity and metabolic syndrome: the AUDITOR Trial. Heart97(14), 1143–1150 (2011).
  • Spence JD. The importance of distinguishing between diffuse carotid intima-media thickening and focal plaque. Can. J. Cardiol.24, 61C–64C (2008).
  • Watanabe K, Sugiyama S, Kugiyama K et al. Stabilization of carotid atheroma assessed by quantitative ultrasound analysis in nonhypercholesterolemic patients with coronary artery disease. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.46(11), 2022–2030 (2005).
  • Stein EA. Additional lipid lowering trials using surrogate measurements of atherosclerosis by carotid intima-media thickness. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.52(25), 2206–2209 (2008).
  • Takaya N, Yuan C, Chu BC et al. Association between carotid plaque characteristics and subsequent ischemic cerebrovascular events – a prospective assessment with MRI – initial results. Stroke37(3), 818–823 (2006).
  • Corti R, Fuster V, Fayad ZA et al. Lipid lowering by simvastatin induces regression of human atherosclerotic lesions: two years’ follow-up by high-resolution noninvasive magnetic resonance imaging. Circulation106(23), 2884–2887 (2002).
  • Corti R, Fuster V, Fayad ZA et al. Effects of aggressive versus conventional lipid-lowering therapy by simvastatin on human atherosclerotic lesions: a prospective, randomized, double-blind trial with high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.46(1), 106–112 (2005).
  • Underhill HR, Yuan C, Zhao XQ et al. Effect of rosuvastatin therapy on carotid plaque morphology and composition in moderately hypercholesterolemic patients: a high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging trial. Am. Heart J.155(3), 584 e581–e588 (2008).
  • Walker LJ, Ismail A, McMeekin W, Lambert D, Mendelow AD, Birchall D. Computed tomography angiography for the evaluation of carotid atherosclerotic plaque: correlation with histopathology of endarterectomy specimens. Stroke33(4), 977–981 (2002).
  • Saba L, Sanfilippo R, Montisci R, Mallarini G. Carotid artery wall thickness: comparison between sonography and multi-detector row CT angiography. Neuroradiology52(2), 75–82 (2010).
  • Saba L, Caddeo G, Sanfilippo R, Montisci R, Mallarini G. CT and ultrasound in the study of ulcerated carotid plaque compared with surgical results: potentialities and advantages of multidetector row CT angiography. AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol.28(6), 1061–1066 (2007).
  • Saba L, Caddeo G, Sanfilippo R, Montisci R, Mallarini G. Efficacy and sensitivity of axial scans and different reconstruction methods in the study of the ulcerated carotid plaque using multidetector-row CT angiography: comparison with surgical results. AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol.28(4), 716–723 (2007).
  • Saba L, Sanfilippo R, Pascalis L, Montisci R, Caddeo G, Mallarini G. Carotid artery wall thickness and ischemic symptoms: evaluation using multi-detector-row CT angiography. Eur. Radiol.18(9), 1962–1971 (2008).
  • Spence JD, Eliasziw M, Dicicco M, Hackam DG, Galil R, Lohmann T. Carotid plaque area: a tool for targeting and evaluating vascular preventive therapy. Stroke33(12), 2916–2922 (2002).
  • Brook RD, Bard RL, Patel S et al. Anegative carotid plaque area test is superior to other noninvasive atherosclerosis studies for reducing the likelihood of having underlying significant coronary artery disease. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol.26(3), 656–662 (2006).
  • Spence JD, Coates V, Li H et al. Effects of intensive medical therapy on microemboli and cardiovascular risk in asymptomatic carotid stenosis. Arch. Neurol. (Chicago)67(2), 180–186 (2010).
  • Spence JD, Hackam DG. Treating arteries instead of risk factors: a paradigm change in management of atherosclerosis. Stroke41(6), 1193–1199 (2010).
  • Johnsen SH, Mathiesen EB, Joakimsen O et al. Carotid atherosclerosis is a stronger predictor of myocardial infarction in women than in men: a 6-year follow-up study of 6226 persons: the Tromsø study. Stroke38(11), 2873–2880 (2007).
  • Ainsworth CD, Blake CC, Tamayo A, Beletsky V, Fenster A, Spence JD. 3D ultrasound measurement of change in carotid plaque volume: a tool for rapid evaluation of new therapies. Stroke36(9), 1904–1909 (2005).
  • Krasinski A, Chiu B, Spence JD, Fenster A, Parraga G. Three-dimensional ultrasound quantification of intensive statin treatment of carotid atherosclerosis. Ultrasound Med. Biol.35(11), 1763–1772 (2009).
  • Shai I, Spence JD, Schwarzfuchs D et al. Dietary intervention to reverse carotid atherosclerosis. Circulation121(10), 1200–1208 (2010).
  • Kwee RM, Van Oostenbrugge RJ, Prins MH et al. Symptomatic patients with mild and moderate carotid stenosis: plaque features at MRI and association with cardiovascular risk factors and statin use. Stroke41(7), 1389–1393 (2010).
  • Saam T, Yuan C, Chu B et al. Predictors of carotid atherosclerotic plaque progression as measured by noninvasive magnetic resonance imaging. Atherosclerosis194(2), e34–e42 (2007).
  • Adams GJ, Greene J, Vick GW 3rd et al. Tracking regression and progression of atherosclerosis in human carotid arteries using high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging. Magn. Reson. Imaging22(9), 1249–1258 (2004).
  • Saam T, Kerwin WS, Chu BC et al. Sample size calculation for clinical trials using magnetic resonance imaging for the quantitative assessment of carotid atherosclerosis. J. Cardiov. Magn. Reson.7(5), 799–808 (2005).
  • Corti R, Fayad ZA, Fuster V et al. Effects of lipid-lowering by simvastatin on human atherosclerotic lesions: a longitudinal study by high-resolution, noninvasive magnetic resonance imaging. Circulation104(3), 249–252 (2001).
  • Boussel L, Arora S, Rapp J et al. Atherosclerotic plaque progression in carotid arteries: monitoring with high-spatial-resolution MR imaging – multicenter trial. Radiology252(3), 789–796 (2009).
  • Hayashi S. Significance of plasma D-dimer in relation to the severity of atherosclerosis among patients evaluated by non-invasive indices of cardio-ankle vascular index and carotid intima–media thickness. Int. J. Hematol.92(1), 76–82 (2010).
  • Varghese A, Yee MS, Chan CF et al. Effect of rosiglitazone on progression of atherosclerosis: insights using 3D carotid cardiovascular magnetic resonance. J. Cardiovasc. Magn. Reson.11, 24 (2009).
  • Goldberg RB, Kendall DM, Deeg MA et al. A comparison of lipid and glycemic effects of pioglitazone and rosiglitazone in patients with Type 2 diabetes and dyslipidemia. Diabetes Care28(7), 1547–1554 (2005).
  • Winkelmayer WC, Setoguchi S, Levin R, Solomon DH. Comparison of cardiovascular outcomes in elderly patients with diabetes who initiated rosiglitazone vs pioglitazone therapy. Arch. Intern. Med.168(21), 2368–2375 (2008).
  • Lee JM, Robson MD, Yu LM et al. Effects of high-dose modified-release nicotinic acid on atherosclerosis and vascular function: a randomized, placebo-controlled, magnetic resonance imaging study. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.54(19), 1787–1794 (2009).
  • Ayaori M, Momiyama Y, Fayad ZA et al. Effect of bezafibrate therapy on atherosclerotic aortic plaques detected by MRI in dyslipidemic patients with hypertriglyceridemia. Atherosclerosis196(1), 425–433 (2008).
  • Yonemura A, Momiyama Y, Fayad ZA et al. Effect of lipid-lowering therapy with atorvastatin on atherosclerotic aortic plaques detected by noninvasive magnetic resonance imaging. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.45(5), 733–742 (2005).
  • Kwee RM, Truijman MT, Mess WH et al. Potential of integrated [18F] fluorodeoxyglucose positron-emission tomography/CT in identifying vulnerable carotid plaques. AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol.32(5), 950–954 (2011).
  • Koelemay MJ, Nederkoorn PJ, Reitsma JB, Majoie CB. Systematic review of computed tomographic angiography for assessment of carotid artery disease. Stroke35(10), 2306–2312 (2004).
  • De Weert TT, Ouhlous M, Zondervan PE et al.In vitro characterization of atherosclerotic carotid plaque with multidetector computed tomography and histopathological correlation. Eur. Radiol.15(9), 1906–1914 (2005).
  • Moustafa RR, Izquierdo-Garcia D, Jones PS et al. Watershed infarcts in transient ischemic attack/minor stroke with > or = 50% carotid stenosis hemodynamic or embolic? Stroke41(7), 1410–1416 (2010).
  • Moody AR, Bitar R, Leung G, Maggisano R. Looking beyond the lumen does make all the difference. Stroke37(7), 1648–1648 (2006).
  • Parmar JP, Rogers WJ, Mugler JP 3rd et al. Magnetic resonance imaging of carotid atherosclerotic plaque in clinically suspected acute transient ischemic attack and acute ischemic stroke. Circulation122(20), 2031–2038 (2010).
  • Singh N, Moody AR, Gladstone DJ et al. Moderate carotid artery stenosis: MR imaging-depicted intraplaque hemorrhage predicts risk of cerebrovascular ischemic events in asymptomatic men. Radiology252(2), 502–508 (2009).
  • Esposito L, Saam T, Heider P et al. MRI plaque imaging reveals high-risk carotid plaques especially in diabetic patients irrespective of the degree of stenosis. BMC Med. Imaging10, 27 (2010).
  • Ouhlous M, Flach HZ, de Weert TT et al. Carotid plaque composition and cerebral infarction: MR imaging study. AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol.26(5), 1044–1049 (2005).
  • Underhill HR, Yuan C, Yarnykh VL et al. Predictors of surface disruption with MR imaging in asymptomatic carotid artery stenosis. AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol.31(3), 487–493 (2010).
  • Zhao XQ, Yuan C, Hatsukami TS et al. Effects of prolonged intensive lipid-lowering therapy on the characteristics of carotid atherosclerotic plaques in vivo by MRI: a case–control study. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol.21(10), 1623–1629 (2001).
  • Zhao XQ, Phan BA, Chu B et al. Testing the hypothesis of atherosclerotic plaque lipid depletion during lipid therapy by magnetic resonance imaging: study design of Carotid Plaque Composition Study. Am. Heart J.154(2), 239–246 (2007).
  • Dong L, Kerwin WS, Chen H et al. Carotid artery atherosclerosis: effect of intensive lipid therapy on the vasa vasorum – evaluation by using dynamic contrast-enhanced MR imaging. Radiology260(1), 224–231 (2011).
  • Young VE, Patterson AJ, Sadat U et al. Diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging for the detection of lipid-rich necrotic core in carotid atheroma in vivo. Neuroradiology52(10), 929–936 (2010).
  • Gronholdt ML, Wiebe BM, Laursen H, Nielsen TG, Schroeder TV, Sillesen H. Lipid-rich carotid artery plaques appear echolucent on ultrasound B-mode images and may be associated with intraplaque haemorrhage. Eur. J. Vasc. Endovasc. Surg.14(6), 439–445 (1997).
  • Goncalves I, Moses J, Pedro LM et al. Echolucency of carotid plaques correlates with plaque cellularity. Eur. J. Vasc. Endovasc. Surg.26(1), 32–38 (2003).
  • Biasi GM, Froio A, Diethrich EB et al. Carotid plaque echolucency increases the risk of stroke in carotid stenting: the Imaging in Carotid Angioplasty and Risk of Stroke (ICAROS) study. Circulation110(6), 756–762 (2004).
  • Prati P, Tosetto A, Casaroli M et al. Carotid plaque morphology improves stroke risk prediction: usefulness of a new ultrasonographic score. Cerebrovasc. Dis.31(3), 300–304 (2011).
  • Kadoglou NPE, Sailer N, Moumtzouoglou A, Kapelouzou A, Gerasimidis T, Liapis CD. Aggressive lipid-lowering is more effective than moderate lipid-lowering treatment in carotid plaque stabilization. J. Vasc. Surg.51(1), 114–121 (2010).
  • Kadoglou NP, Gerasimidis T, Moumtzouoglou A et al. Intensive lipid-lowering therapy ameliorates novel calcification markers and GSM score in patients with carotid stenosis. Eur. J. Vasc. Endovasc. Surg.35(6), 661–668 (2008).
  • Kadoglou NP, Gerasimidis T, Kapelouzou A et al. Beneficial changes of serum calcification markers and contralateral carotid plaques echogenicity after combined carotid artery stenting plus intensive lipid-lowering therapy in patients with bilateral carotid stenosis. Eur. J. Vasc. Endovasc. Surg.39(3), 258–265 (2010).
  • Waki H, Masuyama T, Mori H et al. Ultrasonic tissue characterization of the atherosclerotic carotid artery: histological correlates or carotid integrated backscatter. Circ. J.67(12), 1013–1016 (2003).
  • Yamada K, Yoshimura S, Kawasaki M et al. Effects of atorvastatin on carotid atherosclerotic plaques: a randomized trial for quantitative tissue characterization of carotid atherosclerotic plaques with integrated backscatter ultrasound. Cerebrovasc. Dis.28(4), 417–424 (2009).
  • Ross R. Atherosclerosis – an inflammatory disease. N. Engl. J. Med.340(2), 115–126 (1999).
  • Kircher MF, Grimm J, Swirski FK et al. Noninvasive in vivo imaging of monocyte trafficking to atherosclerotic lesions. Circulation117(3), 388–395 (2008).
  • Wenning C, Stegger L, Hermann S, Schober O, Schäfers M. F-18-FDG imaging for atherosclerotic plaque characterization. Curr. Cardiovasc. Imaging Reports4(3), 190–198 (2011).
  • Rudd JHF, Narula J, Strauss HW et al. Imaging atherosclerotic plaque inflammation by fluorodeoxyglucose with positron emission tomography. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.55(23), 2527–2535 (2010).
  • Ogawa M, Ishino S, Mukai T et al. (18)F-FDG accumulation in atherosclerotic plaques: immunohistochemical and PET imaging study. J. Nucl. Med.45(7), 1245–1250 (2004).
  • Paulmier B, Duet M, Khayat R et al. Arterial wall uptake of fluorodeoxyglucose on PET imaging in stable cancer disease patients indicates higher risk for cardiovascular events. J. Nucl. Cardiol.15(2), 209–217 (2008).
  • Rominger A, Saam T, Wolpers S et al.18F-FDG PET/CT identifies patients at risk for future vascular events in an otherwise asymptomatic cohort with neoplastic disease. J. Nucl. Med.50(10), 1611–1620 (2009).
  • Grandpierre S, Desandes E, Meneroux B et al. Arterial foci of F-18 fluorodeoxyglucose are associated with an enhanced risk of subsequent ischemic stroke in cancer patients: a case–control pilot study. Clin. Nucl. Med.36(2), 85–90 (2011).
  • Tahara N, Kai H, Ishibashi M et al. Simvastatin attenuates plaque inflammation: evaluation by fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.48(9), 1825–1831 (2006).
  • Tahara N, Kai H, Nakaura H et al. The prevalence of inflammation in carotid atherosclerosis: analysis with fluorodeoxyglucose-positron emission tomography. Eur. Heart J.28(18), 2243–2248 (2007).
  • Pugliese F, Gaemperli O, Kinderlerer AR et al. Imaging of vascular inflammation with [11C]-PK11195 and positron emission tomography/computed tomography angiography. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.56(8), 653–661 (2010).
  • Yuan C, Kerwin WS, Ferguson MS et al. Contrast-enhanced high resolution MRI for atherosclerotic carotid artery tissue characterization. J. Magn. Reson. Imaging15(1), 62–67 (2002).
  • Papini GD, Di Leo G, Tritella S et al. Evaluation of inflammatory status of atherosclerotic carotid plaque before thromboendarterectomy using delayed contrast-enhanced subtracted images after magnetic resonance angiography. Eur. J. Radiol.80(3), e373–e380 (2011).
  • Papini GD, Cotticelli B, Tritella S et al. Carotid plaque contrast enhancement (CPCE) at magnetic resonance (MR) imaging: association with inflammatory cell infiltration (ICI) or cerebro- or cardio-vascular events (CCVE). Presented at: 96th Scientific Assembly and Annual Meeting of the Radiological Society of North America. Chicago, IL, USA, 28 November–3 December 2010.
  • Tang TY, Muller KH, Graves MJ et al. Iron oxide particles for atheroma imaging. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol.29(7), 1001–1008 (2009).
  • Trivedi RA, Mallawarachi C, U-King-Im JM et al. Identifying inflamed carotid plaques using in vivo USPIO-enhanced MR imaging to label plaque macrophages. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol.26(7), 1601–1606 (2006).
  • Tang T, Howarth SP, Miller SR et al. Assessment of inflammatory burden contralateral to the symptomatic carotid stenosis using high-resolution ultrasmall, superparamagnetic iron oxide-enhanced MRI. Stroke37(9), 2266–2270 (2006).
  • Tang TY, Howarth SPS, Miller SR et al. The ATHEROMA (Atorvastatin Therapy: Effects on Reduction of Macrophage Activity) study evaluation using ultrasmall superparamagnetic iron oxide-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging in carotid disease. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.53(22), 2039–2050 (2009).
  • Sigovan M, Boussel L, Sulaiman A et al. Rapid-clearance iron nanoparticles for inflammation imaging of atherosclerotic plaque: initial experience in animal model. Radiology252(2), 401–409 (2009).
  • Mofidi R, Crotty TB, Mccarthy P, Sheehan SJ, Mehigan D, Keaveny TV. Association between plaque instability, angiogenesis and symptomatic carotid occlusive disease. Brit. J. Surg.88(7), 945–950 (2001).
  • Virmani R, Kolodgie FD, Burke AP et al. Atherosclerotic plaque progression and vulnerability to rupture – angiogenesis as a source of intraplaque hemorrhage. Arterioscl Throm Vas25(10), 2054–2061 (2005).
  • Mccarthy MJ, Loftus IM, Thompson MM et al. Angiogenesis and the atherosclerotic carotid plaque: an association between symptomatology and plaque morphology. J. Vasc. Surg.30(2), 261–268 (1999).
  • Hiyama T, Tanaka T, Endo S et al. Angiogenesis in atherosclerotic plaque obtained from carotid endarterectomy: association between symptomatology and plaque morphology. Neurol. Med-Chir.50(12), 1056–1061 (2010).
  • Moulton KS, Vakili K, Zurakowski D et al. Inhibition of plaque neovascularization reduces macrophage accumulation and progression of advanced atherosclerosis. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA100(8), 4736–4741 (2003).
  • Moreno PR, Purushothaman KR, Sirol M, Levy AP, Fuster V. Neovascularization in human atherosclerosis. Circulation113(18), 2245–2252 (2006).
  • Kyriakakis E, Cavallari M, Andert J et al. Invariant natural killer T cells: linking inflammation and neovascularization in human atherosclerosis. Eur. J. Immunol.40(11), 3268–3279 (2010).
  • Kerwin WS, O’Brien KD, Ferguson MS, Polissar N, Hatsukami TS, Yuan C. Inflammation in carotid atherosclerotic plaque: a dynamic contrast-enhanced MR imaging study. Radiology241(2), 459–468 (2006).
  • Kerwin W, Hooker A, Spilker M et al. Quantitative magnetic resonance imaging analysis of neovasculature volume in carotid atherosclerotic plaque. Circulation107(6), 851–856 (2003).
  • Tofts PS, Brix G, Buckley DL et al. Estimating kinetic parameters from dynamic contrast-enhanced T(1)-weighted MRI of a diffusable tracer: standardized quantities and symbols. J. Magn. Reson. Imaging10(3), 223–232 (1999).
  • Kerwin WS, Oikawa M, Yuan C, Jarvik GP, Hatsukami TS. MR imaging of adventitial vasa vasorum in carotid atherosclerosis. Magn. Reson. Med.59(3), 507–514 (2008).
  • Moguillansky D, Leng XP, Carson A et al. Quantification of plaque neovascularization using contrast ultrasound: a histologic validation. Eur. Heart J.32(5), 646–653 (2011).
  • Shah F, Balan P, Weinberg M et al. Contrast-enhanced ultrasound imaging of atherosclerotic carotid plaque neovascularization: a new surrogate marker of atherosclerosis? Vasc. Med.12(4), 291–297 (2007).
  • Staub D, Patel MB, Tibrewala A et al. Vasa vasorum and plaque neovascularization on contrast-enhanced carotid ultrasound imaging correlates with cardiovascular disease and past cardiovascular events. Stroke41(1), 41–47 (2010).
  • Owen DR, Shalhoub J, Miller S et al. Inflammation within carotid atherosclerotic plaque: assessment with late-phase contrast-enhanced US. Radiology255(2), 638–644 (2010).
  • Magnoni M, Coli S, Marrocco-Trischitta MM et al. Contrast-enhanced ultrasound imaging of periadventitial vasa vasorum in human carotid arteries. Eur. J. Echocardiogr.10(2), 260–264 (2009).
  • Giannoni MF, Vicenzini E. Focus on the ‘unstable’ carotid plaque: detection of intraplaque angiogenesis with contrast ultrasound. Present state and future perspectives. Curr. Vasc. Pharmacol.7(2), 180–184 (2009).
  • Xiong L, Deng YB, Zhu Y, Liu YN, Bi XJ. Correlation of carotid plaque neovascularization detected by using contrast-enhanced US with clinical symptoms. Radiology251(2), 583–589 (2009).
  • Rosenkranz M, Gerloff C. Diagnostic workup in carotid stenosis – a neurologist’s perspective. Neuroradiology52(7), 619–628 (2010).
  • King A, Markus HS. Doppler embolic signals in cerebrovascular disease and prediction of stroke risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Stroke40(12), 3711–3717 (2009).
  • Markus HS, King A, Shipley M et al. Asymptomatic embolisation for prediction of stroke in the Asymptomatic Carotid Emboli Study (ACES): a prospective observational study. Lancet Neurol.9(7), 663–671 (2010).
  • Young VEL, Degnan AJ, Gillard JH. Advances in contrast media for vascular imaging of atherosclerosis. Imaging Med.3(3), 353–366 (2011).
  • Fujimoto S, Hartung D, Ohshima S et al. Molecular imaging of matrix metalloproteinase in atherosclerotic lesions: resolution with dietary modification and statin therapy. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.52(23), 1847–1857 (2008).

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.