Endovascular therapy in acute ischemic stroke: where we are, the challenges we face and what the future holds

References

• Sussman BJ, Fitch TS. Thrombolysis with fibrinolysin in cerebral arterial occlusion. J. Am. Med. Assoc.167(14), 1705–1709 (1958).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zeumer H, Hacke W, Ringelstein EB. Local intraarterial thrombolysis in vertebrobasilar thromboembolic disease. Am. J. Neuroradiol.4(3), 401–404 (1983).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• del Zoppo GJ, Higashida RT, Furlan AJ, Pessin MS, Rowley HA, Gent M. PROACT: a Phase II randomized trial of recombinant pro-urokinase by direct arterial delivery in acute middle cerebral artery stroke. PROACT investigators. Prolyse in Acute Cerebral Thromboembolism. Stroke29(1), 4–11 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Furlan A, Higashida R, Wechsler L et al. Intra-arterial prourokinase for acute ischemic stroke. The PROACT II study: a randomized controlled trial. Prolyse in Acute Cerebral Thromboembolism. JAMA282(21), 2003–2011 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gobin YP, Starkman S, Duckwiler GR et al. MERCI 1: a Phase I study of mechanical embolus removal in cerebral ischemia. Stroke35(12), 2848–2854 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith WS, Sung G, Starkman S et al. Safety and efficacy of mechanical embolectomy in acute ischemic stroke: results of the MERCI trial. Stroke36(7), 1432–1438 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith WS, Sung G, Saver J et al. Mechanical thrombectomy for acute ischemic stroke: final results of the multi MERCI trial. Stroke39(4), 1205–1212 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Becker KJ, Brott TG. Approval of the MERCI clot retriever: a critical view. Stroke36(2), 400–403 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ueda T, Sakaki S, Nochide I, Kumon Y, Kohno K, Ohta S. Angioplasty after intra-arterial thrombolysis for acute occlusion of intracranial arteries. Stroke29(12), 2568–2574 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lum C, Stys PK, Hogan MJ, Nguyen TB, Srinivasan A, Goyal M. Acute anterior circulation stroke: recanalization using clot angioplasty. Can. J. Neurol. Sci.33(2), 217–222 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goyal M, Srinivasan A, Lum C. Making clot angioplasty safer in hyperacute stroke. Acta Radiol.45(8), 874–875 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sauvageau E, Samuelson RM, Levy EI, Jeziorski AM, Mehta RA, Hopkins LN. Middle cerebral artery stenting for acute ischemic stroke after unsuccessful merci retrieval. Neurosurgery60(4), 701–706 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fitzsimmons BF, Becske T, Nelson PK. Rapid stent-supported revascularization in acute ischemic stroke. Am. J. Neuroradiol.27(5), 1132–1134 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sauvageau E, Levy EI. Self-expanding stent-assisted middle cerebral artery recanalization: technical note. Neuroradiology48(6), 405–408 (2006).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• No authors listed. Tissue plasminogen activator for acute ischemic stroke. The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke rt-PA Stroke Study Group. N. Engl. J. Med.333(24), 1581–1587 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wahlgren N, Ahmed N, Davalos A et al. Thrombolysis with alteplase for acute ischaemic stroke in the Safe Implementation of Thrombolysis in Stroke-Monitoring Study (SITS-MOST): an observational study. Lancet369(9558), 275–282 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hallevi H, Grotta JC. SITS-MOST: old myths laid to rest. Lancet Neurol.6(4), 292–293 (2007).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hacke W, Kaste M, Bluhmki E et al. Thrombolysis with alteplase 3 to 4.5 hours after acute ischemic stroke. N. Engl. J. Med.359(13), 1317–1329 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hacke W, Donnan G, Fieschi C et al. Association of outcome with early stroke treatment: pooled analysis of ATLANTIS, ECASS, and NINDS rt-PA stroke trials. Lancet363(9411), 768–774 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lees KR, Bluhmki E, von Kummer R et al. Time to treatment with intravenous alteplase and outcome in stroke: an updated pooled analysis of ECASS, ATLANTIS, NINDS, and EPITHET trials. Lancet375(9727), 1695–1703 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewandowski CA, Frankel M, Tomsick TA et al. Combined intravenous and intra-arterial r-TPA versus intra-arterial therapy of acute ischemic stroke: Emergency Management of Stroke (EMS) bridging trial. Stroke30(12), 2598–2605 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• No authors listed. Combined intravenous and intra-arterial recanalization for acute ischemic stroke: the Interventional Management of Stroke Study. Stroke35(4), 904–911 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• No authors listed. The Interventional Management of Stroke (IMS) II Study. Stroke38(7), 2127–2135 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Molina CA, Alexandrov AV, Demchuk AM, Saqqur M, Uchino K, Alvarez-Sabin J. Improving the predictive accuracy of recanalization on stroke outcome in patients treated with tissue plasminogen activator. Stroke35(1), 151–156 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marks MP, Olivot JM, Kemp S et al. Patients with acute stroke treated with intravenous tPA 3–6 hours after stroke onset: correlations between MR angiography findings and perfusion – and diffusion-weighted imaging in the DEFUSE study. Radiology249(2), 614–623 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chalela JA, Kidwell CS, Nentwich LM et al. Magnetic resonance imaging and computed tomography in emergency assessment of patients with suspected acute stroke: a prospective comparison. Lancet369(9558), 293–298 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• del Zoppo GJ, Poeck K, Pessin MS et al. Recombinant tissue plasminogen activator in acute thrombotic and embolic stroke. Ann. Neurol.32(1), 78–86 (1992).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saqqur M, Uchino K, Demchuk AM et al. Site of arterial occlusion identified by transcranial Doppler predicts the response to intravenous thrombolysis for stroke. Stroke38(3), 948–954 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zangerle A, Kiechl S, Spiegel M et al. Recanalization after thrombolysis in stroke patients: predictors and prognostic implications. Neurology68(1), 39–44 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alexandrov AV, Burgin WS, Demchuk AM, El-Mitwalli A, Grotta JC. Speed of intracranial clot lysis with intravenous tissue plasminogen activator therapy: sonographic classification and short-term improvement. Circulation103(24), 2897–2902 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• No authors listed. The Penumbra Pivotal Stroke trial: safety and effectiveness of a new generation of mechanical devices for clot removal in intracranial large vessel occlusive disease. Stroke40(8), 2761–2768 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kulcsar Z, Bonvin C, Pereira VM et al. Penumbra System: a novel mechanical thrombectomy device for large-vessel occlusions in acute stroke. AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol.31(4), 628–633 (2009).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Struffert T, Kohrmann M, Engelhorn T et al. Penumbra Stroke System as an ‘add-on’ for the treatment of large vessel occlusive disease following thrombolysis: first results. Eur. Radiol.19(9), 2286–2293 (2009).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Menon BK, Hill MD, Eesa M et al. Initial experience with the Penumbra Stroke System for recanalization of large vessel occlusions in acute ischemic stroke. Neuroradiology53(4), 261–266 (2010).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Menon BK, Kochar P, Ah-Seng A et al. Initial experience with a self-expanding retrievable stent for recanalization of large vessel occlusions in acute ischemic stroke. Neuroradiology DOI: 10.1007/s00234-010-0835-X (2011) (Epub ahead of print).
   Google Scholar
• Levy EI, Siddiqui AH, Crumlish A et al. First Food and Drug Administration-approved prospective trial of primary intracranial stenting for acute stroke: SARIS (stent-assisted recanalization in acute ischemic stroke). Stroke40(11), 3552–3556 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly ME, Furlan AJ, Fiorella D. Recanalization of an acute middle cerebral artery occlusion using a self-expanding, reconstrainable, intracranial microstent as a temporary endovascular bypass. Stroke39(6), 1770–1773 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mocco J, Hanel RA, Sharma J et al. Use of a vascular reconstruction device to salvage acute ischemic occlusions refractory to traditional endovascular recanalization methods. J. Neurosurg.112(3), 557–562 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castano C, Dorado L, Guerrero C et al. Mechanical thrombectomy with the Solitaire AB device in large artery occlusions of the anterior circulation: a pilot study. Stroke41(8), 1836–1840 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suh SH, Kim BM, Roh HG et al. Self-expanding stent for recanalization of acute embolic or dissecting intracranial artery occlusion. Am. J. Neuroradiol.31(3), 459–463 (2010).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Coutts SB, Goyal M. When recanalization does not improve clinical outcomes. Stroke40(8), 2661 (2009).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Goyal M. Poor clinical outcome despite successful arterial recanalization. What went wrong? How can we do better? Neuroradiology52(5), 341–343 (2010).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hill MD, Menon BK. Effect modification and ischaemic stroke treatment. Lancet Neurol.9(7), 649–651 (2010).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hussein HM, Georgiadis AL, Vazquez G et al. Occurrence and predictors of futile recanalization following endovascular treatment among patients with acute ischemic stroke: a multicenter study. Am. J. Neuroradiol.31(3), 454–458 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wechsler LR, Roberts R, Furlan AJ et al. Factors influencing outcome and treatment effect in PROACT II. Stroke34(5), 1224–1229 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hallevi H, Barreto AD, Liebeskind DS et al. Identifying patients at high risk for poor outcome after intra-arterial therapy for acute ischemic stroke. Stroke40(5), 1780–1785 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hill MD, Rowley HA, Adler F et al. Selection of acute ischemic stroke patients for intra-arterial thrombolysis with pro-urokinase by using ASPECTS. Stroke34(8), 1925–1931 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goyal M, Menon BK, Coutts SB, Hill MD, Demchuk AM. Effect of baseline CT scan appearance and time to recanalization on clinical outcomes in endovascular thrombectomy of acute ischemic strokes. Stroke42(1), 93–97 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phan TG, Chen J, Donnan G, Srikanth V, Wood A, Reutens DC. Development of a new tool to correlate stroke outcome with infarct topography: a proof-of-concept study. Neuroimage49(1), 127–133 (2010).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Miteff F, Levi CR, Bateman GA, Spratt N, McElduff P, Parsons MW. The independent predictive utility of computed tomography angiographic collateral status in acute ischaemic stroke. Brain132(Pt 8), 2231–2238 (2009).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bang OY, Saver JL, Buck BH et al. Impact of collateral flow on tissue fate in acute ischaemic stroke. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry79(6), 625–629 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Menon BK, Smith EE, Modi J et al. Regional leptomeningeal score on CT angiography predicts clinical and imaging outcomes in patients with acute anterior circulation occlusions. Am. J. Neuroradiol. (2011) (In Press).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bang OY, Saver JL, Kim SJ et al. Collateral flow predicts response to endovascular therapy for acute ischemic stroke. Stroke42(3), 693–699 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rha JH, Saver JL. The impact of recanalization on ischemic stroke outcome: a meta-analysis. Stroke38(3), 967–973 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khatri P, Abruzzo T, Yeatts SD, Nichols C, Broderick JP, Tomsick TA. Good clinical outcome after ischemic stroke with successful revascularization is time-dependent. Neurology73(13), 1066–1072 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhatia R, Hill MD, Shobha N et al. Low rates of acute recanalization with intravenous recombinant tissue plasminogen activator in ischemic stroke: real-world experience and a call for action. Stroke41(10), 2254–2258 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Puetz V, Dzialowski I, Hill MD et al. Intracranial thrombus extent predicts clinical outcome, final infarct size and hemorrhagic transformation in ischemic stroke: the clot burden score. Int. J. Stroke3(4), 230–236 (2008).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tan IY, Demchuk AM, Hopyan J et al. CT angiography clot burden score and collateral score: correlation with clinical and radiologic outcomes in acute middle cerebral artery infarct. Am. J. Neuroradiol.30(3), 525–531 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maulaz AB, Martins RT, de Castro Ribeiro M, Londero R, Soares JO, Fernandes JG. Could thrombolytic approaches in acute stroke benefit from stringent selection criteria? Nat. Clin. Pract. Neurol.5(3), 138–139 (2009).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Salottolo KM, Fanale CV, Leonard KA, Frei DF, Bar-Or D. Multimodal imaging does not delay intravenous thrombolytic therapy in acute stroke. Am. J. Neuroradiol. DOI: ajnr.AZ394V1-0 (2011) (Epub ahead of print).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Scott EM, Ariens RA, Grant PJ. Genetic and environmental determinants of fibrin structure and function: relevance to clinical disease. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Bio.24(9), 1558–1566 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smye SW, Berridge D, Ouriel K, Parkin A, David T. Assessing clot lysis strategies using a simplified mathematical model. J. Med. Eng. Technol.21(3–4), 121–125 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pleydell CP, David T, Smye SW, Berridge DC. A mathematical model of post-canalization thrombolysis. Phys. Med. Biol.47(2), 209–224 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Molina CA. Imaging the clot: does clot appearance predict the efficacy of thrombolysis? Stroke36(11), 2333–2334 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cho KH, Kim JS, Kwon SU, Cho AH, Kang DW. Significance of susceptibility vessel sign on T2*-weighted gradient echo imaging for identification of stroke subtypes. Stroke36(11), 2379–2383 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schellinger PD, Chalela JA, Kang DW, Latour LL, Warach S. Diagnostic and prognostic value of early MR Imaging vessel signs in hyperacute stroke patients imaged <3 hours and treated with recombinant tissue plasminogen activator. Am. J. Neuroradiol.26(3), 618–624 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mishra NK, Ahmed N, Andersen G et al. Thrombolysis in very elderly people: controlled comparison of SITS International Stroke Thrombolysis Registry and Virtual International Stroke Trials Archive. BMJ341, c6046 (2010).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mishra NK, Diener HC, Lyden PD, Bluhmki E, Lees KR. Influence of age on outcome from thrombolysis in acute stroke: a controlled comparison in patients from the Virtual International Stroke Trials Archive (VISTA). Stroke41(12), 2840–2848 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ringleb PA, Schwark C, Kohrmann M et al. Thrombolytic therapy for acute ischaemic stroke in octogenarians: selection by magnetic resonance imaging improves safety but does not improve outcome. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry78(7), 690–693 (2007).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Qureshi AI, Suri MF, Georgiadis AL, Vazquez G, Janjua NA. Intra-arterial recanalization techniques for patients 80 years or older with acute ischemic stroke: pooled analysis from 4 prospective studies. Am. J. Neuroradiol.30(6), 1184–1189 (2009).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kim D, Ford GA, Kidwell CS et al. Intra-arterial thrombolysis for acute stroke in patients 80 and older: a comparison of results in patients younger than 80 years. Am. J. Neuroradiol.28(1), 159–163 (2007).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pieri A, Spitz M, Kihara EN, Gabbai AA. Intra-arterial thrombolysis after full-dose intravenous recombinant tissue plasminogen activator for patients older than 80 years with acute ischemic stroke: what is the safety limit? Neurol. India58(3), 487 (2010).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nichols C, Carrozzella J, Yeatts S, Tomsick T, Broderick J, Khatri P. Is peri-procedural sedation during acute stroke therapy associated with poorer functional outcomes? J. Neurointerv. Sur.2(1), 67–70 (2010).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jumaa MA, Zhang F, Ruiz-Ares G et al. Comparison of safety and clinical and radiographic outcomes in endovascular acute stroke therapy for proximal middle cerebral artery occlusion with intubation and general anesthesia versus the nonintubated state. Stroke41(6), 1180–1184 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abou-Chebl A, Lin R, Hussain MS et al. Conscious sedation versus general anesthesia during endovascular therapy for acute anterior circulation stroke: preliminary results from a retrospective, multicenter study. Stroke41(6), 1175–1179 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mazighi M, Serfaty JM, Labreuche J et al. Comparison of intravenous alteplase with a combined intravenous-endovascular approach in patients with stroke and confirmed arterial occlusion (RECANALISE study): a prospective cohort study. Lancet Neurol.8(9), 802–809 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ciccone A, Valvassori L, Gasparotti R, Scomazzoni F, Ballabio E, Sterzi R. Debunking 7 myths that hamper the realization of randomized controlled trials on intra-arterial thrombolysis for acute ischemic stroke. Stroke38(7), 2191–2195 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khatri P, Hill MD, Palesch YY et al. methodology of the Interventional Management of Stroke III Trial. Int. J. Stroke3(2), 130–137 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayashi S, Nehls DG, Kieck CF, Vielma J, DeGirolami U, Crowell RM. Beneficial effects of induced hypertension on experimental stroke in awake monkeys. J. Neurosurg.60(1), 151–157 (1984).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cole DJ, Schell RM, Przybelski RJ, Drummond JC, Bradley K. Focal cerebral ischemia in rats: effect of hemodilution with α–α cross-linked hemoglobin on CBF. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab.12(6), 971–976 (1992).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Smrcka M, Ogilvy CS, Crow RJ, Maynard KI, Kawamata T, Ames A 3rd. Induced hypertension improves regional blood flow and protects against infarction during focal ischemia: time course of changes in blood flow measured by laser Doppler imaging. Neurosurgery42(3), 617–624; discussion 624–615 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rordorf G, Koroshetz WJ, Ezzeddine MA, Segal AZ, Buonanno FS. A pilot study of drug-induced hypertension for treatment of acute stroke. Neurology56(9), 1210–1213 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hammer M, Jovin T, Wahr JA, Heiss WD. Partial occlusion of the descending aorta increases cerebral blood flow in a nonstroke porcine model. Cerebrovasc. Dis.28(4), 406–410 (2009).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hussain MS, Bhagat YA, Liu S et al. DWI lesion volume reduction following acute stroke treatment with transient partial aortic obstruction. J. Neuroimaging20(4), 379–381 (2010).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Uflacker R, Schonholz C, Papamitisakis N. Interim report of the SENTIS trial: cerebral perfusion augmentation via partial aortic occlusion in acute ischemic stroke. J. Cardiovasc. Surg.49(6), 715–721 (2008).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Liebeskind DS. Reperfusion for acute ischemic stroke: arterial revascularization and collateral therapeutics. Curr. Opin. Neurol.23(1), 36–45 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alexandrov AW, Ribo M, Wong KS et al. Perfusion augmentation in acute stroke using mechanical counter-pulsation-Phase IIa: effect of external counterpulsation on middle cerebral artery mean flow velocity in five healthy subjects. Stroke39(10), 2760–2764 (2008).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Han JH, Leung TW, Lam WW et al. Preliminary findings of external counterpulsation for ischemic stroke patient with large artery occlusive disease. Stroke39(4), 1340–1343 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Han JH, Wong KS. Is counterpulsation a potential therapy for ischemic stroke? Cerebrovasc. Dis.26(2), 97–105 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davalos A, Blanco M, Pedraza S et al. The clinical-DWI mismatch: a new diagnostic approach to the brain tissue at risk of infarction. Neurology62(12), 2187–2192 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fagan SC, Garcia JH. Hemorrhagic transformation in focal cerebral ischemia: influence of time to artery reopening and tissue plasminogen activator. Pharmacotherapy19(2), 139–142 (1999).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hill MD, Demchuk AM, Tomsick TA, Palesch YY, Broderick JP. Using the baseline CT scan to select acute stroke patients for IV-IA therapy. Am. J. Neuroradiol.27(8), 1612–1616 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar