326
Views
128
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Blood-based diagnostics of traumatic brain injuries

, , , , &
Pages 65-78 | Published online: 09 Jan 2014

References

  • Ghajar J. Traumatic brain injury. Lancet356, 923–929 (2000).
  • Cole TB. Global road safety crisis remedy sought, 1.2 million killed, 50 million injured annually. JAMA291, 2531–2532 (2004).
  • Traumatic brain injury, time to end the silence. Lancet Neurol.9, 331 (2010).
  • Brown AF, Cullen L, Than M. Future developments in chest pain diagnosis and management. Med. Clin. North Am.94, 375–400 (2010).
  • Stocchetti N, Pagan F, Calappi E et al. Inaccurate early assessment of neurological severity in head injury. J. Neurotrauma21, 1131–1140 (2004).
  • Marion DW, Carlier PM. Problems with initial Glasgow Coma Scale assessment caused by prehospital treatment of patients with head injuries, results of a national survey. J. Trauma36, 89–95 (1994).
  • Livingston BM, Mackenzie SJ, MacKirdy FN, Howie JC. Should the pre-sedation Glasgow Coma Scale value be used when calculating acute physiology and chronic health evaluation scores for sedated patients? Scottish Intensive Care Society Audit Group. Crit. Care Med.28, 389–394 (2000).
  • Lindenbaum GA, Carroll SF, Daskal I, Kapusnick R. Patterns of alcohol and drug abuse in an urban trauma center, the increasing role of cocaine abuse. J. Trauma29, 1654–1658 (1989).
  • Corrigan JD. Substance abuse as a mediating factor in outcome from traumatic brain injury. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehab.76, 302–309 (1995).
  • Levi L, Guilburd JN, Lemberger A, Soustiel JF, Feinsod M. Diffuse axonal injury, analysis of 100 patients with radiological signs. Neurosurgery27(3), 429–432 (1990).
  • Kesler SR, Adams HF, Bigler ED. SPECT, MR and quantitative MR imaging, correlates with neuropsychological and psychological outcome in traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj.14, 851–857 (2000).
  • Brenner DJ, Hall EJ. Computed tomography – an increasing source of radiation exposure. N. Engl. J. Med.357, 2277–2284 (2007).
  • Mettler FA Jr, Bhargavan M, Faulkner K et al. Radiologic and nuclear medicine studies in the united states and worldwide, frequency, radiation dose, and comparison with other radiation sources – 1950–2007. Radiology253, 520–531 (2009).
  • Fazel R, Krumholz HM, Wang Y et al. Exposure to low-dose ionizing radiation from medical imaging procedures. N. Engl. J. Med.361, 849–857 (2009).
  • Servadei FM, Murray GD, Penny KP et al. The value of the ‘worst’ computed tomographic scan in clinical studies of moderate and severe head injury. Neurosurgery46, 70–77 (2000).
  • Rimel RW, Giordani B, Barth JT, Boll TJ, Jane JA. Disability caused by minor head injury. Neurosurgery7(5), 400–408 (1981).
  • Millis SR, Rosenthal MP, Novack TAP et al. Long-term neuropsychological outcome after traumatic brain injury. J. Head Trauma Rehab.16, 343–355 (2001).
  • Macciocchi SN, Reid DB, Barth JT. Disability following head injury. Curr. Opin. Neurol.6(5), 773–777 (1993).
  • Alexander MP. Mild traumatic brain injury, pathophysiology, natural history, and clinical management. Neurology45, 1253–1260 (1995).
  • Barth JT, Macciocchi SN, Giordani B, Rimel R, Jane JA, Boll TJ. Neuropsychological sequelae of minor head injury. Neurosurgery13, 529–533 (1983).
  • McCrory PR, Berkovic SF. Second impact syndrome. Neurology50, 677–683 (1998).
  • Saatman KE, Duhaime AC, Bullock R, Maas AI, Valadka A, Manley GT. Classification of traumatic brain injury for targeted therapies. J. Neurotrauma25, 719–738 (2008).
  • Wang KK, Ottens AK, Liu MC et al. Proteomic identification of biomarkers of traumatic brain injury. Expert Rev. Proteomics2, 603–614 (2005).
  • Denslow N, Michel ME, Temple MD, Hsu CY, Saatman K, Hayes RL. Application of proteomics technology to the field of neurotrauma. J. Neurotrauma20, 401–407 (2003).
  • Burgess JA, Lescuyer P, Hainard A et al. Identification of brain cell death associated proteins in human post-mortem cerebrospinal fluid. J. Proteome Res.5, 1674–1681 (2006).
  • Kochanek AR, Kline AE, Gao WM et al. Gel-based hippocampal proteomic analysis 2 weeks following traumatic brain injury to immature rats using controlled cortical impact. Dev. Neurosci.28, 410–419 (2006).
  • Yang X, Yang S, Wang J, Zhang X, Wang C, Hong G. Expressive proteomics profile changes of injured human brain cortex due to acute brain trauma. Brain Inj.23, 830–840 (2009).
  • Siman R, McIntosh TK, Soltesz KM, Chen Z, Neumar RW, Roberts VL. Proteins released from degenerating neurons are surrogate markers for acute brain damage. Neurobiol. Dis.16, 311–320 (2004).
  • Pike BR, Zhao X, Newcomb JK, Wang KK, Posmantur RM, Hayes RL. Temporal relationships between de novo protein synthesis, calpain and caspase 3-like protease activation, and DNA fragmentation during apoptosis in septo-hippocampal cultures. J. Neurosci. Res.52, 505–520 (1998).
  • Wang KK. Calpain and caspase, can you tell the difference? Trends Neurosci.23, 20–26 (2000).
  • Liu J, Liu MC, Wang KK. Calpain in the CNS, from synaptic function to neurotoxicity. Sci. Signal.1(14), re1 (2008).
  • Liu MC, Akinyi L, Scharf D et al. Ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase-L1 as a biomarker for ischemic and traumatic brain injury in rats. Eur. J. Neurosci.31, 722–732 (2010).
  • Pike BR, Flint J, Dutta S, Johnson E, Wang KK, Hayes RL. Accumulation of non-erythroid α II-spectrin and calpain-cleaved α II-spectrin breakdown products in cerebrospinal fluid after traumatic brain injury in rats. J. Neurochem.78, 1297–1306 (2001).
  • Ringger NC, O’Steen BE, Brabham JG et al. A novel marker for traumatic brain injury, CSF αII-spectrin breakdown product levels. J. Neurotrauma21, 1443–1456 (2004).
  • Pineda JA, Lewis SB, Valadka AB et al. Clinical significance of aII-spectrin breakdown products in cerebrospinal fluid after severe traumatic brain injury. J. Neurotrauma24, 354–366 (2007).
  • Mondello S, Robicsek S, Gabrielli A et al. αII-spectrin breakdown products (SBDPs), diagnosis and outcome in severe traumatic brain injury patients. J. Neurotrauma27, 1203–1213 (2010).
  • Siman R, Toraskar N, Dang A et al. A panel of neuron-enriched proteins as markers for traumatic brain injury in humans. J. Neurotrauma26, 1867–1877 (2009).
  • Haskins WE, Kobeissy FH, Wolper RA et al. Rapid discovery of putative protein biomarkers of traumatic brain injury by SDS-PAGE–capillary liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. J. Neurotrauma22, 629–644 (2005).
  • Ottens AK, Kobeissy FH, Wolper RA et al. A multidimensional differential proteomic platform using dual-phase ion-exchange chromatography–polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis/reversed-phase liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Anal. Chem.77, 4836–4845 (2005).
  • Kobeissy FH, Ottens AK, Zhang Z et al. Novel differential neuroproteomics analysis of traumatic brain injury in rats. Mol. Cell. Proteomics5, 1887–1898 (2006).
  • Liu MC, Akle V, Zheng W et al. Comparing calpain- and caspase-3-mediated degradation patterns in traumatic brain injury by differential proteome analysis. Biochem. J.394, 715–725 (2006).
  • Yao C, Williams AJ, Ottens AK et al. Detection of protein biomarkers using high-throughput immunoblotting following focal ischemic or penetrating ballistic-like brain injuries in rats. Brain Inj.22, 723–732 (2008).
  • Papa L, Akinyi L, Liu MC et al. Ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase is a novel biomarker in humans for severe traumatic brain injury. Crit. Care Med.38, 138–144 (2010).
  • Mondello S, Robicsek S, Gabrielli A et al. αII-spectrin breakdown products (SBDPs), diagnosis and outcome in severe traumatic brain injury patients. J. Neurotrauma27(7), 1203–1213 (2010).
  • Brophy GM, Pineda JA, Papa L et al. αII-apectrin breakdown product cerebrospinal fluid exposure metrics suggest differences in cellular injury mechanisms after severe traumatic brain injury. J. Neurotrauma26, 471–479 (2009).
  • Honda M, Tsuruta R, Kaneko T et al. Serum glial fibrillary acidic protein is a highly specific biomarker for traumatic brain injury in humans compared with S-100B and neuron-specific enolase. J. Trauma69(1), 104–109 (2010).
  • Lumpkins KM, Bochicchio GV, Keledjian K, Simard JM, McCunn M, Scalea T. Glial fibrillary acidic protein is highly correlated with brain injury. J. Trauma65, 778–782 (2008).
  • Englebienne P. Immune and Receptor Assays in Theory and Practice. CRC Press, NJ, USA (2000).
  • Sweep FC, Thomas CM, Schmitt M. analytical aspects of biomarker immunoassays in cancer research. In: Cancer Drug Discovery and Development. Gasparini G, Hayes DF (Eds). Humana Press, NJ, USA 17–30 (2010).
  • Lee JW, Devanarayan V, Barrett YC et al. Fit-for-purpose method development and validation for successful biomarker measurement. Pharm. Res.23, 312–328 (2006).
  • Cauchon E, Liu S, Percival MD et al. Development of a homogeneous immunoassay for the detection of angiotensin I in plasma using aLISA acceptor beads technology. Anal. Biochem.388, 134–139 (2009).
  • Sanchez-Martinez ML, Aguilar-Caballos MP, Gomez-Hens A. Homogeneous immunoassay for soy protein determination in food samples using gold nanoparticles as labels and light scattering detection. Anal. Chim. Acta636, 58–62 (2009).
  • Du B, Li Z, Cheng Y. Homogeneous immunoassay based on aggregation of antibody-functionalized gold nanoparticles coupled with light scattering detection. Talanta75, 959–964 (2008).
  • Kokko L, Kokko T, Lovgren T, Soukka T. Particulate and soluble Eu(III)-chelates as donor labels in homogeneous fluorescence resonance energy transfer based immunoassay. Anal. Chim. Acta606, 72–79 (2008).
  • Kuningas K, Rantanen T, Ukonaho T, Lovgren T, Soukka T. Homogeneous assay technology based on upconverting phosphors. Anal. Chem.77, 7348–7355 (2005).
  • Vaisocherova H, Faca VM, Taylor AD, Hanash S, Jiang S. Comparative study of SPR and ELISA methods based on analysis of CD166/ALCAM levels in cancer and control human sera. Biosens. Bioelectron.24, 2143–2148 (2009).
  • Bothara M, Venkatraman V, Reddy RK, Barrett T, Carruthers J, Prasad S. Nanomonitors, electrical immunoassays for protein biomarker profiling. Nanomed. (Lond.)3, 423–436 (2008).
  • Wasowicz M, Viswanathan S, Dvornyk A, Grzelak K, Kludkiewicz B, Radecka H. Comparison of electrochemical immunosensors based on gold nano materials and immunoblot techniques for detection of histidine-tagged proteins in culture medium. Biosens. Bioelectron.24, 284–289 (2008).
  • Indyk HE, Filonzi EL. Direct optical biosensor analysis of folate-binding protein in milk. J. Agric. Food Chem.52, 3253–3258 (2004).
  • Davis F, Higson SP. Label-free immunochemistry approach to detect and identity antibiotics in milk. Pediatr. Res.67, 476–480 (2010).
  • Sun AL, Qi QA, Dong ZL. Label-free electrochemical immunosensor for the determination of fetoprotein based on core-shell–shell nanocomposite particles. Protein Pept. Lett.15, 782–788 (2008).
  • Lai NS, Wang CC, Chiang HL, Chau LK. Detection of antinuclear antibodies by a colloidal gold modified optical fiber, comparison with ELISA. Anal. Bioanal. Chem.388, 901–907 (2007).
  • Swanson SJ, Jacobs SJ, Mytych D, Shah C, Indelicato SR, Bordens RW. Applications for the new electrochemiluminescent (ECL) and biosensor technologies. Dev. Biol. Stand.97, 135–147 (1999).
  • Malmqvist M. Epitope mapping by label-free biomolecular interaction analysis. Methods9, 525–532 (1996).
  • Wu M, Long S, Frutos AG, Eichelberger M, Li M, Fang Y. Interrogation of phosphor-specific interaction on a high-throughput label-free optical biosensor system – epic system. J. Recept. Signal. Transduct. Res.29, 202–210 (2009).
  • Fang Y, Frutos AG, Verklereen R. Label-free cell-based assays for GPCR screening. Comb. Chem. High Throughput Screen.11, 357–369 (2008).
  • Tang L, Dong C, Ren J. Highly sensitive homogenous immunoassay of cancer biomarker using silver nanoparticles enhanced fluorescence correlation spectroscopy. Talanta81, 1560–1567 (2010).
  • Franek M, Zeravik J, Eremin SA et al. Antibody-based methods for surfactant screening. Fresenius J. Anal. Chem.371, 456–466 (2001).
  • Muller UR. Protein detection using biobarcodes. Mol. Biosyst.2, 470–476 (2006).
  • Ingebrigtsen T, Romner B. Biochemical serum markers of traumatic brain injury. J. Trauma52, 798–808 (2002).
  • Kochanek PM, Berger RP, Bayir H, Wagner AK, Jenkins LW, Clark RS. Biomarkers of primary and evolving damage in traumatic and ischemic brain injury, diagnosis, prognosis, probing mechanisms, and therapeutic decision making. Curr. Opin. Crit. Care14, 135–141 (2008).
  • Lyeth BG, Jiang JY, Robinson SE, Guo H, Jenkins LW. Hypothermia blunts acetylcholine increase in CSF of traumatically brain injured rats. Mol. Chem. Neuropathol.18, 247–256 (1993).
  • Papa L, Robinson G, Oli MW et al. Use of biomarkers for diagnosis and management of traumatic brain injury patients. Expert Opin. Med. Diagn.2, 937–945 (2008).
  • Raabe A, Grolms C, Seifert V. Serum markers of brain damage and outcome prediction in patients after severe head injury. Br. J. Neurosurg.13, 56–59 (1999).
  • Robinson SE, Martin RM, Davis TR, Gyenes CA, Ryland JE, Enters EK. The effect of acetylcholine depletion on behavior following traumatic brain injury. Brain Res.509, 41–46 (1990).
  • Raabe A, Seifert V. Fatal secondary increase in serum S-100B protein after severe head injury. Report of three cases. J. Neurosurg.91, 875–877 (1999).
  • Zemlan FP, Rosenberg WS, Luebbe PA et al. Quantification of axonal damage in traumatic brain injury, affinity purification and characterization of cerebrospinal fluid tau proteins. J. Neurochem.72, 741–750 (1999).
  • Clark RS, Kochanek PM, Adelson PD et al. Increases in bcl-2 protein in cerebrospinal fluid and evidence for programmed cell death in infants and children after severe traumatic brain injury. J. Pediatr.137, 197–204 (2000).
  • Tapiola T, Pirttila T, Mikkonen M et al. Three-year follow-up of cerebrospinal fluid tau, β-amyloid 42 and 40 concentrations in Alzheimer’s disease. Neurosci. Lett.280, 119–122 (2000).
  • Haber B, Grossman RG. Acetylcholine metabolism in intracranial and lumbar cerebrospinal fluid and in blood. In: Neurobiology of Cerebrospinal Fluid. Wood JH (Ed.). Plentum Press, NY, USA 345–350 (1980).
  • Xiong H, Liang WL, Wu XR. [Pathophysiological alterations in cultured astrocytes exposed to hypoxia/reoxygenation]. Sheng Li Ke Xue Jin Zhan31, 217–221 (2000).
  • Raabe A, Grolms C, Keller M, Dohnert J, Sorge O, Seifert V. Correlation of computed tomography findings and serum brain damage markers following severe head injury. Acta Neurochir. (Wien)140, 787–791 (1998).
  • Romner B, Ingebrigtsen T, Kongstad P, Borgesen SE. Traumatic brain damage, serum S-100 protein measurements related to neuroradiological findings. J. Neurotrauma17, 641–647 (2000).
  • Woertgen C, Rothoerl RD, Metz C, Brawanski A. Comparison of clinical, radiologic, and serum marker as prognostic factors after severe head injury. J. Trauma47, 1126–1130 (1999).
  • Raabe A, Grolms C, Sorge O, Zimmermann M, Seifert V. Serum S-100B protein in severe head injury. Neurosurgery45, 477–483 (1999).
  • Rothoerl RD, Woertgen C, Holzschuh M, Metz C, Brawanski A. S-100 serum levels after minor and major head injury. J. Trauma45, 765–767 (1998).
  • Herrmann M, Curio N, Jost S, Wunderlich MT, Synowitz H, Wallesch CW. Protein S-100B and neuron specific enolase as early neurobiochemical markers of the severity of traumatic brain injury. Restor. Neurol. Neurosci.14, 109–114 (1999).
  • McKeating EG, Andrews PJ, Mascia L. Relationship of neuron specific enolase and protein S-100 concentrations in systemic and jugular venous serum to injury severity and outcome after traumatic brain injury. Acta Neurochir. Suppl.71, 117–119 (1998).
  • Pelinka LE, Kroepfl A, Leixnering M, Buchinger W, Raabe A, Redl H. GFAP versus S100B in serum after traumatic brain injury, relationship to brain damage and outcome. J. Neurotrauma21, 1553–1561 (2004).
  • Woertgen C, Rothoerl RD, Holzschuh M, Metz C, Brawanski A. Comparison of serial S-100 and NSE serum measurements after severe head injury. Acta Neurochir. (Wien)139, 1161–1164 (1997).
  • Rothoerl RD, Woertgen C. High serum S100B levels for trauma patients without head injuries. Neurosurgery49, 1490–1491 (2001).
  • Anderson RE, Hansson LO, Nilsson O, Dijlai-Merzoug R, Settergren G. High serum S100B levels for trauma patients without head injuries. Neurosurgery48, 1255–1258 (2001).
  • Romner B, Ingebrigtsen T. High serum S100B levels for trauma patients without head injuries. Neurosurgery49, 1490–1493 (2001).
  • Jonsson H, Johnsson P, Backstrom M, Alling C, Dautovic-Bergh C, Blomquist S. Controversial significance of early S100B levels after cardiac surgery. BMC Neurol.4, 24 (2004).
  • Routsi C, Stamataki E, Nanas S et al. Increased levels of serum S100B protein in critically ill patients without brain injury. Shock26, 20–24 (2006).
  • Berger RP, Dulani T, Adelson PD, Leventhal JM, Richichi R, Kochanek PM. Identification of inflicted traumatic brain injury in well-appearing infants using serum and cerebrospinal markers, a possible screening tool. Pediatrics117, 325–332 (2006).
  • Piazza O, Storti MP, Cotena S et al. S100B is not a reliable prognostic index in paediatric TBI. Pediatr. Neurosurg.43, 258–264 (2007).
  • Gonçalves CA, Leite MC, Nardin P. Biological and methodological features of the measurement of S100B, a putative marker of brain injury. Clin. Biochem.41, 755–763 (2008).
  • Bloomfield SM, McKinney J, Smith L et al. Reliability of S100B in predicting severity of central nervous system injury. Neurocrit. Care6, 121–138 (2007).
  • Marangos PJ, Schmechel DE. Neuron specific enolase, a clinically useful marker for neurons and neuroendocrine cells. Annu. Rev. Neurosci.10, 269–295 (1987).
  • Vos PE, Lamers KJ, Hendriks JC et al. Glial and neuronal proteins in serum predict outcome after severe traumatic brain injury. Neurology62, 1303–1310 (2004).
  • Ross SA, Cunningham RT, Johnston CF, Rowlands BJ. Neuron-specific enolase as an aid to outcome prediction in head injury. Br. J. Neurosurg.10, 471–476 (1996).
  • Yamazaki Y, Yada K, Morii S, Kitahara T, Ohwada T. Diagnostic significance of serum neuron-specific enolase and myelin basic protein assay in patients with acute head injury. Surg. Neurol.43, 267–270 (1995).
  • Jonsson H, Johnsson P, Backstrom M, Alling C, Dautovic-Bergh C, Blomquist S. Controversial significance of early S100B levels after cardiac surgery. BMC Neurol.4, 24 (2004).
  • Pelinka LE, Hertz H, Mauritz W et al. Nonspecific increase of systemic neuron-specific enolase after trauma, clinical and experimental findings. Shock24, 119–123 (2005).
  • Palfreyman JW, Thomas DG, Ratcliffe JG. Radioimmunoassay of human myelin basic protein in tissue extract, cerebrospinal fluid and serum and its clinical application to patients with head injury. Clin. Chim. Acta82, 259–270 (1978).
  • Thomas DG, Palfreyman JW, Ratcliffe JG. Serum-myelin-basic-protein assay in diagnosis and prognosis of patients with head injury. Lancet1, 113–115 (1978).
  • Thomas DG, Rabow L, Teasdale G. Serum myelin basic protein, clinical responsiveness, and outcome of severe head injury. Acta Neurochir. Suppl. (Wien)28, 93–95 (1979).
  • Berger RP, Adelson PD, Pierce MC, Dulani T, Cassidy LD, Kochanek PM. Serum neuron-specific enolase, S100B, and myelin basic protein concentrations after inflicted and noninflicted traumatic brain injury in children. J. Neurosurg.103, 61–68 (2005).
  • Tongaonkar P, Chen L, Lambertson D, Ko B, Madura K. Evidence for an interaction between ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes and the 26S proteasome. Mol. Cell. Biol.20, 4691–4698 (2000).
  • Gong B, Leznik E. The role of ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase L1 in neurodegenerative disorders. Drug News Perspect.20, 365–370 (2007).
  • Papa L, Akinyi L, Liu MC et al. Ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase is a novel biomarker in humans for severe traumatic brain injury. Crit. Care Med.38, 138–144 (2010).
  • Eng LF, Vanderhaeghen JJ, Bignami A, Gerstl B. An acidic protein isolated from fibrous astrocytes. Brain Res.28, 351–354 (1971).
  • Eng LF. Proteins of the Nervous System. Raven Press, NY, USA 85–117 (2010).
  • Eng LF, Ghirnikar RS, Lee YL. Glial fibrillary acidic protein: GFAP-thirty-one years (1969–2000). Neurochem. Res.25, 1439–1451 (2000).
  • Missler U, Wiesmann M, Wittmann G, Magerkurth O, Hagenstrom H. Measurement of glial fibrillary acidic protein in human blood: analytical method and preliminary clinical results. Clin. Chem.45, 138–141 (1999).
  • Pelinka LE, Kroepfl A, Schmidhammer R et al. Glial fibrillary acidic protein in serum after traumatic brain injury and multiple trauma. J. Trauma57, 1006–1012 (2004).
  • Van Geel WJ, De Reus HP, Nijzing H, Verbeek MM, Vos PE, Lamers KJ. Measurement of glial fibrillary acidic protein in blood, an analytical method. Clin. Chim. Acta326, 151–154 (2002).
  • Pike BR, Flint J, Dave JR et al. Accumulation of calpain and caspase-3 proteolytic fragments of brain-derived aII-spectrin in cerebral spinal fluid after middle cerebral artery occlusion in rats. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab.24, 98–106 (2004).
  • Riederer BM, Zagon IS, Goodman SR. Brain spectrin (240/235) and brain spectrin (240/235E): two distinct spectrin subtypes with different locations within mammalian neural cells. J. Cell Biol.102, 2088–2097 (1986).
  • Wang KK, Posmantur R, Nath R et al. Simultaneous degradation of aII- and bII-spectrin by caspase 3 (CPP32) in apoptotic cells. J. Biol. Chem.273, 22490–22497 (1998).
  • Narayan RK, Michel ME, Ansell B et al. Clinical trials in head injury. J. Neurotrauma19, 503–557 (2002).
  • Chesnut RM, Marshall LF, Klauber MR et al. The role of secondary brain injury in determining outcome from severe head injury. J. Trauma34, 216–222 (1993).
  • Alberico AM, Ward JD, Choi SC, Marmarou A, Young HF. Outcome after severe head injury. Relationship to mass lesions, diffuse injury, and ICP course in pediatric and adult patients. J. Neurosurg.67, 648–656 (1987).
  • Marmarou A. Neurotrauma. McGraw-Hill, NY, USA (1996).
  • Hemphill JC III, Barton CW, Morabito D, Manley GT. Influence of data resolution and interpolation method on assessment of secondary brain insults in neurocritical care. Physiol. Meas.26, 373–386 (2005).
  • Langlois JA, Rutland-Brown W, Thomas KE. Traumatic Brain Injury in the United States, Emergency Department Visits, Hospitalizations, and Deaths. US Department of Health and Human Services, CDC, GA, USA (2004).
  • Clifton GL, Miller ER, Choi SC et al. Lack of effect of induction of hypothermia after acute brain injury. N. Engl. J. Med.344, 556–563 (2001).
  • McHugh GS, Engel DC, Butcher I et al. Prognostic value of secondary insults in traumatic brain injury: results from the IMPACT study. J. Neurotrauma24, 287–293 (2007).

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.