251
Views
21
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Epilepsy, sex hormones and antiepileptic drugs in female patients

, , , &
Pages 1803-1814 | Published online: 09 Jan 2014

References

  • Herzog AG, Seibel MM, Schomer DL, Vaitukaitis JL, Geschwind N. Reproductive endocrine disorders in women with partial seizures of temporal lobe origin. Arch. Neurol.43, 341–346 (1986).
  • Isojärvi JI, Laatikainen TJ, Pakarinen AJ, Juntunen KT, Myllylä VV. Polycystic ovaries and hyperandrogenism in women taking valproate for epilepsy. N. Engl. J. Med.329, 1383–1388 (1993).
  • Klüver H, Bucy PC, Klüver H, Bucy PC. Preliminary analysis of functions of the temporal lobes in monkeys. J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci.9, 606–620 (1939).
  • Herzog AG, Fowler KM. Sexual hormones and epilepsy: threat and opportunities. Curr. Opin. Neurol.18, 167–172 (2005).
  • Isojärvi JI, Taubøll E, Herzog AG. Effect of antiepileptic drugs on reproductive endocrine function in individuals with epilepsy. CNS Drugs19, 207–223 (2005).
  • de Vries L, Karasik A, Landau Z, Phillip M, Kiviti S, Goldberg-Stern H. Endocrine effects of valproate in adolescent girls with epilepsy. Epilepsia48, 470–477 (2007).
  • Wallace H, Shorvon S, Tallis R. Age-specific incidence and prevalence rates of treated epilepsy in an unselected population of 2,052,922 and age-specific fertility rates of women with epilepsy. Lancet352, 1970–1973 (1998).
  • Dansky LV, Andermann E, Andermann F. Marriage and fertility in epileptic patients. Epilepsia21, 261–271 (1980).
  • Webber MP, Hauser WA, Ottman R, Annegers JF. Fertility in persons with epilepsy: 1935–1974. Epilepsia27, 746–752 (1986).
  • Hamed SA. Neuroendocrine hormonal conditions in epilepsy: relationship to reproductive and sexual functions. Neurologist14, 157–169 (2008).
  • Morrell MJ, Giudice L, Flynn KL et al. Predictors of ovulatory failure in women with epilepsy. Ann. Neurol.52, 704–711 (2002).
  • Morrell MJ. Reproductive and metabolic disorders in women with epilepsy. Epilepsia44, 11–20 (2002).
  • Herzog AG, Friedman MN. Menstrual cycle interval and ovulation in women with localization-related epilepsy. Neurology57, 2133–2135 (2002).
  • Herzog AG, Coleman AE, Jacobs AR et al. Interictal EEG discharges, reproductive hormones, and menstrual disorders in epilepsy. Ann. Neurol.54, 625–637 (2003).
  • Klein P, Serje A, Pezzullo JC. Premature ovarian failure in women with epilepsy. Epilepsia42, 1584–1589 (2001).
  • Harden CL, Koppel BS, Herzog AG, Nikolov BG, Hauser WA. Seizure frequency is associated with age at menopause in women with epilepsy. Neurology61, 451–455 (2003).
  • Hamed SA, Hamed EA, Shokry M, Omar H, Abdellah MM. The reproductive conditions and lipid profile in females with epilepsy. Acta Neurol. Scand.115, 112–122 (2007).
  • Bauer J, Isojärvi JI, Herzog AG et al. Reproductive dysfunction in women with epilepsy: recommendations for evaluation and management. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatr.73, 121–125 (2002).
  • Stoffel-Wagner B, Bauer J, Flügel D, Brennemann W, Klingmüller D, Elger CE. Serum sex hormones are altered in patients with chronic temporal lobe epilepsy receiving anticonvulsant medication. Epilepsia39, 1164–1173 (1998).
  • Morrell MJ. Epilepsy in women. Am. Fam. Physician66, 1489–1494 (2002).
  • Bilo L, Meo R, Nappi C et al. Reproductive endocrine disorders in women with primary generalized epilepsy. Epilepsia29, 612–619 (1988).
  • Nappi C, Meo R, Di Carlo C, Estraneo A, Bilo L. Reuced fertility and neuroendocrine dysfunction in women with epilepsy. Gynecol. Endocrinol.8, 133–145 (1994).
  • Scharfman HE, Kim M, Hintz TM, MacLusky NJ. Seizures and reproductive function: insights from female rats with epilepsy. Ann. Neurol.64, 687–697 (2008).
  • Edwards HE, Burnham WM, Ng MM, Asa S, MacLusky NJ. Limbic seizures alter reproductive function in the female rat. Epilepsia40, 1370–1377 (1999).
  • Feeney DM, Gullotta FP, Gilmore W. Hyposexuality produced by temporal lobe epilepsy in the cat. Epilepsia39, 140–149 (1998).
  • Sperling MR, Pritchard PB, Engel J, Daniel C, Sagel J. Prolactin in partial epilepsy: an indicator of limbic seizures. Ann. Neurol.20, 716–722 (1986).
  • Hum KM, Megna S, Burnham WM. The effects of right and left amygdala kindling on the female reproductive system in rats. Epilepsia50, 880–886 (2009).
  • Herzog AG. A relationship between particular reproductive endocrine disorders and the laterality of epileptiform discharges in women with epilepsy. Neurology43, 1907–1910 (1993).
  • Löfgren E, Mikkonen K, Tolonen U et al. Reproductive endocrine function in women with epilepsy: the role of epilepsy type and medication. Epilepsy Behav.10, 77–83 (2007).
  • Meo R, Bilo L, Nappi C et al. Derangement of the hypothalamic GnRH pulse generator in women with epilepsy. Seizure2, 241–252 (1993).
  • Drislane FW, Coleman AE, Schomer DL et al. Altered pulsatile secretion of luteinizing hormone in women with epilepsy. Neurology44, 306–310 (1994).
  • Cummings LN, Giudice L, Morrell MJ. Ovulatory function in epilepsy. Epilepsia36, 355–359 (1995).
  • Herzog AG. Menstrual disorders in women with epilepsy. Neurology66, S23–S28 (2006).
  • Bazán AC, Montenegro MA, Cendes F, Min LL, Guerreiro CA. Menstrual cycle worsening of epileptic seizures in women with symptomatic focal epilepsy. Arq. Neuropsiquiatr.63, 751–756 (2005).
  • Bilo L, Meo R, Valentino R, Di Carlo C, Striano S, Nappi C. Characterization of reproductive endocrine disorders in women with epilepsy. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.86, 2950–2956 (2001).
  • Bilo L, Meo, R, Valentino R, Buscaino GA, Striano S, Nappi C. Abnormal pattern of luteinizing hormone pulsatility in women with epilepsy. Fertil. Steril.55, 705–711 (1991).
  • Murialdo G, Magri F, Tamagno G et al. Seizure frequency and sex steroids in women with partila epilepsy on antiepileptic therapy. Epilepsia50, 1920–1926 (2009).
  • Svalheim S, Taubøll E, Bjørnenak T et al. Do women with epilepsy have increased frequency of menstrual disturbances? Seizure12, 529–533 (2003).
  • Spratt DI, Finkelstein JS, Butler JP, Badger TM, Crowley WF. Effects of increasing the frequency of low doses of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) on gonadotropin secretion in GnRH-deficient men. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.64, 1179–1186 (1987).
  • Herzog AG. A hypothesis to integrate partial seizures of temporal lobe origin and reproductive endocrine disorders. Epilepsy Res.3, 151–159 (1989).
  • Klüver H, Bucy PC, Klüver H, Bucy PC. Preliminary analysis of functions of the temporal lobes in monkeys. 1939. J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci.9, 606–620 (1997).
  • Rao ML, Stefen H, Bauer J. Epileptic but not psychogenic seizures are accompained by simultaneous elevation of serum pituitary hormones and cortisol levels. Neuroendocrinology49, 33–39 (1989).
  • Herzog AG. Polycystic ovarian syndrome in women with epilepsy: epileptic or iatrogenic? Ann. Neurol.39, 559–560 (1996).
  • Daniele A, Azzoni A, Bizzi A, Rossi A, Gainotti G, Mazza S. Sexual behavior and hemispheric laterality of the focus in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy. Biol. Psychiatry42, 617–624 (1997).
  • Baird AD, Wilson SJ, Bladin PF, Saling MM, Reutens DC. Sexual outcome after epilepsy surgery. Epilepsy Behav.4268–4278 (2003).
  • Herzog AG, Coleman AE, Jacobs AR et al. Relationship of sexual dysfunction to epilepsy laterality and reproductive hormone levels in women. Epilepsy Behav.4, 407–413 (2003).
  • Herzog AG, Schachter SC. On the association between valproate and polycystic ovary syndrome Epilepsia42, 311–315 (2001).
  • Kalinin VV, Zheleznova EV. Chronology and evolution of temporal lobe epilepsy and endocrine reproductive dysfunction in women: relationships to side of focus and catameniality. Epilepsy Behav.11, 185–191 (2007).
  • Harden CL. Sexual dysfunction in women with epilepsy. Seizure17, 131–135 (2008).
  • Crawford P, Appleton R, Betts T, Duncan J, Guthrie E, Morrow J. Best practice guidelines for the management of women with epilepsy. The Women with Epilepsy Guidelines Development group. Seizure8, 201–217 (1999).
  • Bauer J, Burr W, Elger CE. Seizure occurrence during ovulatory and anovulatory cycles in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy: a prospective study. Eur. J. Neurol.5, 83–88 (1998).
  • Morrell MJ, Sperling MR, Stecker M, Dichter MA. Sexual dysfunction in partial epilepsy: a deficit in physiologic sexual arousal. Neurology44, 243–247 (1994).
  • Bauer J, Cooper-Mahkorn D. Reproductive dysfunction in women with epilepsy: menstrual cycle abnormalities, fertility, and polycystic ovary syndrome. Int. Rev. Neurobiol.83, 135–155 (2008).
  • Manna I, Labate A, Gambardella A et al. Serotonin transporter gene (5-Htt): association analysis with temporal lobe epilepsy. Neurosci. Lett.421, 52–56 (2007).
  • Dana-Haeri J, Oxley J, Richen A. Reduction of free testosterone by antiepileptic drugs. Br. Med. J.284, 85–86 (1982).
  • Beastall GH, Cowan RA, Gray JM, Fogelman I. Hormone binding globulins and anticonvulsant therapy. Scott. Med. J.30, 101–105 (1985).
  • Victor A, Lundberg PO, Johansson ED. Induction of sex hormone binding globulin by phenytoin. Br. Med. J.2, 934–935 (1977).
  • Levesque LA, Herzog AG, Seibe MM. The effect of phenytoin and carbamazepine on serum dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate in men and women who have partial seizures with temporal lobe involvement. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.63, 243–245 (1986).
  • Galimberti CA, Magri F, Copello F et al. Changes in sex steroid levels in women with epilepsy on treatment: relationship with antiepileptic therapies and seizure frequency. Epilepsia50, 28–32 (2009).
  • Murialdo G, Galimberti CA, Gianelli MV et al. Effects of valproate, phenobarbital, and carbamazepine on sex steroid setup in women with epilepsy. Clin. Neuropharmacol.21, 52–58 (1998).
  • Herzog AG. Disorders of reproduction in patients with epilepsy: primary neurological mechanisms. Seizure17, 101–110 (2008).
  • Isojärvi JI. Serum steroid hormones and pituitary function in female epileptic patients during carbamazepine therapy. Epilepsia31(4), 438–445 (1990).
  • Galimberti CA, Magri F, Copello F et al. Seizure frequency and cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS) levels in women with epilepsy receiving antiepileptic drug treatment. Epilepsia46, 517–523 (2005).
  • Mejias-Aponte CA, Jimenz-Rivera CA, Segarra AC. Sex differences in models of temporal lobe epilepsy: role of testosterone. Brain Res.944, 210–218 (2002).
  • Jacobsen NW, Halling-Sorensen B, Birkved K. Inhibition of human aromatase complex (CYP19) by antiepileptic drugs. Toxicol. In Vitro22, 146–143 (2008).
  • Taubøll E, Gregoraszczuk LE, Wojtowicz AK, Milewicz T. Effects of levetiracetam and valproate on reproductive endocrine function studied in human ovarian follicular cells. Epilepsia50, 1868–1874 (2009).
  • Murialdo G, Galimberti CA, Magri F et al. Menstrual cycle and ovary alterations in women with epilepsy on antiepileptic therapy. J. Endocrinol. Invest.20, 519–526 (1997).
  • Rättyä J, Pakarinen AJ, Knip M et al. Early hormonal changes during valproate or carbamazepine treatment: a 3-month study. Neurology57, 440–444 (2001).
  • Isojärvi JI, Laatikainen TJ, Pakarinen AJ, Juntunen KT, Myllylä VV. Menstrual disorders in women with epilepsy receiving carbamazepine. Epilepsia36, 676–681 (1995).
  • Isojärvi JI, Laatikainen TJ, Knip M, Pakarinen AJ, Juntunen KT, Myllylä VV. Obesity and endocrine disorders in women taking valproate for epilepsy. Ann. Neurol.39, 579–584 (1996).
  • Lossius MI, Taubøll E, Mowinckel P, Mørkrid L, Gjerstad L. Reversible effects of antiepileptic drugs on reproductive endocrine function in men and women with epilepsy – a prospective randomized double-blind withdrawal study. Epilepsia48, 1875–1882 (2007).
  • Dana-Haeri J, Oxley J, Richens A. Pituitary responsiveness to gonadotrophin-releasing and thyrotrophin-releasing hormones in epileptic patients receiving carbamazepine or phenytoin. Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf.)20, 163–168 (1984).
  • Isojärvi JI, Myllylä VV, Pakarinen AJ. Effects of carbamazepine on pituitary responsiveness to luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone, thyrotropin-releasing hormone, and metoclopramide in epileptic patients. Epilepsia30, 50–56 (1989).
  • Bonuccelli U, Murialdo G, Martino E et al. Effects of carbamazepine on prolactin secretion in normal subjects and in epileptic subjects. Clin. Neuropharmacol.8, 165–174 (1985).
  • Isojärvi JI, Taubøll E, Pakarinen AJ et al. Altered ovarian function and cardiovascular risk factors in valproate-treated women. Am. J. Med.111, 290–296 (2001).
  • Bauer J, Jarre A, Klingmüller D, Elger CE. Polycystic ovary syndrome in patients with focal epilepsy: a study in 93 women. Epilepsy Res.41, 163–167 (2000).
  • Stephen LJ, Kwan P, Shapiro D, Dominiczak M, Brodie MJ. Hormone profiles in young adults with epilepsy treated with sodium valproate or lamotrigine monotherapy. Epilepsia42, 1002–1006 (2001).
  • Betts T, Yarrow H, Dutton N, Greenhill L, Rolfe T. A study of anticonvulsant medication on ovarian function in a group of women with epilepsy who have only ever taken one anticonvulsant compared with a group of women without epilepsy. Seizure12, 323–329 (2003).
  • Prabhakar S, Sahota P, Kharbanda PS et al. Sodium valproate, hyperandrogenism and altered ovarian function in Indian women with epilepsy: a prospective study. Epilepsia48, 1371–1377 (2007).
  • Morrel M, Bhatt M, Ozkara C et al. Higher incidence of symptoms of polycystic ovary syndrome in women with epilepsy treated with valproate versus lamotrigine. Neurology64, 428 (2005).
  • Kwan P, Yip FP, Hui AC et al. Effects of valproate or lamotrigine monotherapy on the reproductive endocrine and insulin-related metabolic profile in Chinese adults with epilepsy: a prospective randomized study. Epilepsy Behav.14, 610–616 (2009).
  • Stephen LJ, Sills GJ, Leach JP et al. Sodium valproate versus lamotrigine: a randomised comparison of efficacy, tolerability and effects on circulating androgenic hormones in newly diagnosed epilepsy. Epilepsy Res.75, 122–129 (2007).
  • Vainionpää LK, Rättyä J, Knip M et al. Valproate-induced hyperandrogenism during pubertal maturation in girls with epilepsy. Ann. Neurol.45, 444–450 (1999).
  • Verrotti A, Ciampani M, Pomilio M, Latini G, Chiarelli F. Endocrine abormalities induced by antiepileptic drugs. Curr. Pediatr. Rev.2, 85–92 (2006).
  • Death AK, McGrath KC, Handelsman DJ. Valproate is an anti-androgen and anti-progestin. Steroids70, 946–953 (2005).
  • Lydon JP, DeMayo FJ, Conneely OM, O’Malley BW. Reproductive phenotpes of the progesterone receptor null mutant mouse. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol.56, 67–77 (1996).
  • Rättya J, Vainionpää L, Knip M, Lanning P, Isojärvi JI. The effects of valproate, carbamazepine, and oxcarbazepine on growth and sexual maturation in girls with epilepsy. Pediatrics103, 588–593 (1999).
  • Löfgren E, Tapanainen JS, Koivunen R, Pakarinen A, Isojärvi JI. Effects of carbamazepine and oxcarbazepine on the reproductive endocrine function in women with epilepsy. Epilepsia47, 1441–1446 (2006).
  • Isojärvi JI, Rättyä J, Myllylä VV et al. Valproate, lamotrigine, and insulin-mediated risks in women with epilepsy. Ann. Neurol.43, 446–451 (1998).
  • Morrell MJ, Isojärvi J, Taylor AE et al. Higher androgens and weight gain with valproate compared with lamotrigine for epilepsy. Epilepsy Res.54, 189–199 (2003).
  • Opaleke A, Helmers SL. Hormonal consequences of epilepsy. Semin. Pediatr. Neurol.14, 189–195 (2007).
  • Sahota P, Prabhakar S, Kharbanda PS et al. Seizure type, antiepileptic drugs, and reproductive endocrine dysfunction in Indian women with epilepsy: a cross-sectional study. Epilepsia49, 2069–2077 (2008).
  • Gorkemli H, Genc BO, Dogan E, Genc E, Ozdemir S. Long-term effects of valproic acid on reproductive endocrine functions in Turkish women with epilepsy. Gynecol. Obstet. Invest.67, 223–227 (2009).
  • Luef G, Abraham I, Trinka E et al. Hyperandrogenism, postprandial hyperinsulinism and the risk of PCOS in a cross sectional study of women with epilepsy treated with valproate. Epilepsy Res.48, 91–102 (2002).
  • Genton P, Bauer J, Duncan S et al. On the association between valproate and polycystic ovary syndrome. Epilepsia42, 295–304 (2001).
  • Luef G, Abraham I, Haslinger M et al. Polycystic ovaries, obesity and insulin resistance in women with epilepsy. A comparative study of carbamazepine and valproic acid in 105 women. J. Neurol.249, 835–841 (2002).
  • Azziz R, Woods KS, Reyna R, Key TJ, Knochenhauer ES, Yildiz BO. The prevalence and features of the polycystic ovary syndrome in an unselected population. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.89, 2745–2749 (2004).
  • Polson DW. Polycystic ovary syndrome and epilepsy – a gynaecological perspective. Seizure12, 397–402 (2003).
  • Rasgon N. The relationship between polycystic ovary syndrome and antiepileptic drugs: a review of the evidence. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol.24, 322–334 (2004).
  • Duncan S. Polycystic ovarian syndrome in women with epilepsy: a review. Epilepsia42, 60–65 (2001).
  • Betts T, Dutton N, Yarrow H. Epilepsy and the ovary (cutting out the hysteria). Seizure10, 220–328 (2001).
  • Verrotti A, Basciani F, Morresi S, de Martino M, Morgese G, Chiarelli F. Serum leptin changes in epileptic patients who gain weight after therapy with valproic acid. Neurology53, 230–232 (1999).
  • Verrotti A, la Torre R, Trotta D, Mohn A, Chiarelli F. Valproate-induced insulin resistance and obesity in children. Horm. Res.71, 125–131 (2009).
  • Jallon P, Picard F. Bodyweight gain and anticonvulsants: a comparative review. Drug Saf.24, 969–978 (2001).
  • Biton V, Mirza W, Montouris G, Vuong A, Hammer AE, Barrett PS. Weight change associated with valproate and lamotrigine monotherapy in patients with epilepsy. Neurology56, 172–177 (2001).
  • Wirrell EC. Valproic acid-associated weight gain in older children and teens with epilepsy. Pediatr. Neurol.28, 126–129 (2003).
  • Mikkonen K, Vainionpää LK, Pakarinen AJ et al. Long-term reproductive endocrine health in young women with epilepsy during puberty. Neurology62, 445–450 (2004).
  • Egger J, Brett EM. Effects of sodium valproate in 100 children with special reference to weight. Br. Med. J.283, 577–581 (1981).
  • Dinesen H, Gram L, Andersen T, Dam M. Weight gain during treatment with valproate. Acta Neurol. Scand.70, 65–69 (1984).
  • Breum L, Astrup A, Gram L et al. Metabolic changes during treatment with valproate in humans: implication for untoward weight gain. Metab. Clin. Exp.41, 666–670 (1992).
  • Gidal BE, Anderson GD, Spencer NW et al. Valproate-associated weight gain: potential relation to energy expenditure and metabolism in patients with epilepsy. J. Epilepsy9, 234–241 (1996).
  • Demir E, Aysun S. Weight gain associated with valproate in childhood. Pediatr. Neurol.22, 361–364 (2000).
  • Covanis A, Gupta AK, Jeavons PM. Sodium valproate: monotherapy and polytherapy. Epilepsia23, 693–720 (1982).
  • Pylvänen V, Knip M, Pakarinen A, Kotila M, Turkka J, Isojärvi JI. Serum insulin and leptin levels in valproate-associated obesity. Epilepsia,43, 514–517 (2002).
  • Dunaif A. Insulin resistance and the polycystic ovary syndrome: mechanism and implications for pathogenesis. Endocr. Rev.18, 774–800 (1997).
  • Luef GJ, Lechleitner M, Bauer G, Trinka E, Hengster P. Valproic acid modulates islet cell insulin secretion: a possible mechanism of weight gain in epilepsy patients. Epilepsy Res.55, 53–58 (2003).
  • Wong HY, Chu TS, Lai JC et al. Sodium valproate inhibits glucose transport and exacerbates Glut-1 deficiency in vitro. J. Cell. Biochem.96, 775–785 (2005).
  • Gregoraszczuk E, Wójtowicz AK, Taubøll E, Ropstad E. Valproate-induced alterations in testosterone, estradiol and progesterone secretion from porcine follicular cells isolated from small- and medium-sized ovarian follicles. Seizure9, 480–485 (2000).
  • Taubøll E, Isojärvi JI, Flinstad Harbo H, et al. Long-term valproate treatment induces changes in ovarian morphology and serum sex steroid hormone levels in female Wistar rats. Seizure8, 490–493 (1999).
  • Røste LS, Taubøll E, Berner A, Isojärvi JI, Gjerstad L. Valproate, but not lamotrigine, induces ovarian morphological changes in Wistar rats. Exp. Toxicol. Pathol.52, 545–552 (2001).
  • Isojärvi J. Disorders of reproduction in patients with epilepsy: antiepileptic drug related mechanisms. Seizure17, 111–119 (2008).
  • Adab N, Kini U, Vinten J et al. The long term outcome of children born to mothers with epilepsy. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry75, 1575–1583 (2004).
  • Teramo K, Hiilesmaa V, Bardy A, Saarikoski S. Fetal heart rate during a maternal grand mal epileptic seizure. J. Perinat. Med.7, 3–6 (1979).
  • Tomson T, Battino D. Pharmacokinetics and therapeutic drug monitoring of newer antiepileptic drugs during pregnancy and puerperium. Clin. Pharmacokinet.46, 209–219 (2007).
  • Teramo K, Hiilesmaa V. Pregnancy and fetal complications in epileptic pregnancies. In: Epilepsy, Pregnancy, and the Child. Janz D, Dam M, Bossi L, Helge H, Richens A, Schmidt D (Eds). Raven, NY, USA 53–59 (1982).
  • The EURAP study group. Seizure control and treatment in pregnancy: observations from the EURAP Epilepsy Pregnancy Registry. Neurology66, 354–360 (2006).
  • Katz O, Levy A, Wizniter A et al. Pregnancy and perinatal outcome in epileptic women: a population-based study. J. Matern. Fetal Neonatal Med.19, 21–25 (2006).
  • Richmond JR, Krishnamoorthy P, Andermann E, Benjamin A. (2004) Epilepsy and pregnancy: an obstetric perspective. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.190, 371–379 (2004).
  • Olafsson E, Hallgrimsson JT, Hauser WA. Pregnancies of women with epilepsy: a population-based study in Iceland. Epilepsia39, 887–892 (1998).
  • Fairgrieve SD, Jackson M, jonas P et al. Population based, prospective study of the care of women with epilepsy in pregnancy. BMJ321, 674–675 (2000).
  • Crawford P. Best practice guidelines for the management of women with epilepsy. Epilepsia46, 117–124 (2005).
  • Viinikainen K, Heinonen S, Eriksson K, Kalviainen R. Community-based, prospective, controlled study of obstetric and neonatal outcome of 179 pregnancies in women with epilepsy. Epilepsia47, 186–192 (2006).
  • Harden LH, Hopp J, Ting YT et al. Management issues for women with epilepsy – focus on pregnancy (an evidence-based review): I. Obstetrical complications and change in seizure frequency. Epilepsia50, 1229–1236 (2009).
  • Fried S, Kozer E, Nulman I, Einarson TR, Koren G. Malformation rates in children of women with untreated epilepsy: a meta-analysis. Drug Saf.27, 197–202 (2004).
  • Fonager K, Larsen H, Pedersen L, Sørensen HT. Birth outcomes in women exposed to anticonvulsant drugs. Acta Neurol. Scand.101, 289–294 (2000).
  • Holmes LB, Harvey EA, Coull BA et al. The teratogenicity of anticonvulsant drugs. N. Engl. J. Med.344, 1132–1138 (2001).
  • Kaaja E, Kaaja R, Matila R, Hiilesmaa V. Enzyme-inducing antiepileptic drugs in pregnancy and the risk of bleeding in the neonate. Neurology58, 549–553 (2002).
  • Sabers A, Dam M, Rogvi-Hansen B, Boas J, Sidenius P, Laue FM. Epilepsy and pregnancy: lamotrigine as main drug used. Acta Neurol. Scand.10, 9–13 (2004).
  • Aguglia U, Barboni G, Battino D et al. Italian Consensus Conference on Epilepsy and Pregnancy, Labor and Puerperium. Epilepsia50, 7–23 (2009).
  • Tomson T. Gender aspects of pharmacokinetics of new and old AEDs: pregnancy and breast-feeding. Ther. Drug Monit.27, 718–721 (2005).
  • Veiby G, Daltveit KA, Engelsen AB, Gilhus EN. Pregnancy, delivery, and outcome for the child in maternal epilepsy. Epilepsia50, 2130–2139 (2009).
  • Artama M, Auvinen A, Raudaskoski T, Isojarvi I, Isojarvi J. Antiepileptic drug use of women with epilepsy and congenital malformations in offspring. Neurology64, 1874–1878 (2005).
  • Vajda FJ, Eadie MJ. Maternal valproate dosage and foetal malformations. Acta Neurol. Scand.112, 137–143 (2005).
  • Morrow J, Russell A, Guthrie E et al. Malformation risks of antiepileptic drugs in pregnancy: a prospective study from the UK Epilepsy and Pregnancy Register. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry77, 193–198 (2006).
  • Wide K, Winbladh B, Kallen B. Major malformations in infants exposed to antiepileptic drugs in utero, with emphasis on carbamazepine and valproic acid: a nation-wide, population-based register study. Acta Paediatr.9, 174–176 (2004).
  • Wyszynski DF, Nambisan M, Surve T, Alsdorf RM, Smith CR, Holmes LB. Increased rate of major malformations in offspring exposed to valproate during pregnancy. Neurology64, 961–965 (2005).
  • Barrett C, Richens A. Epilepsy and pregnancy: report of an Epilepsy Research Foundation Workshop. Epilepsy Res.52, 147–187 (2003).
  • Olafsson E, Hauser WA, Gudmundsson G. Fertility in patients with epilepsy: a population-based study. Neurology51, 71–73 (1998).
  • Harden CL. Sexuality in women with epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav7, S2–S6 (2005).
  • Bauer J, Stefan H, Schrell U, Sappke U, Uhlig B. Neurophysiologic principles and clinical value of post-convulsive serum prolactin determination in epileptic seizure. Fortschr. Neurol. Psychiatr.57, 457–468 (1989).
  • Bauer J. Epilepsy and prolactin in adults: a clinical review. Epilepsy Res.24, 1–7 (1996).
  • Duncan S, Blacklaw J, Beastall GH, Brodie MJ. Sexual function in women with epilepsy. Epilepsia38, 1074–1081 (1997).
  • Morrell MJ, Guldner GT. Self-reported sexual function and sexual arousability in women with epilepsy. Epilepsia37, 1204–1210 (1996).

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.