Psychogenic nonepileptic seizures: diagnosis and initial management

References

• Sigurdardottir KR, Olafsson E. Incidence of psychogenic seizures in adults: a population based study in Iceland. Epilepsia39, 749–752 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Francis P, Baker GA. Non-epileptic attack disorder (NEAD): a comprehensive review. Seizure8, 53–61 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benbadis SR, Hauser WA. An estimate of the prevalence of psychogenic non-epileptic seizures. Seizure9, 280–281 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Szaflarski JP, Ficker DM, Cahill WT, Privatera MD. Four year incidence of psychogenic seizures in adults in Hamilton County, H.O. Neurology55, 1561–1563 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reuber M, Fernandez G, Bauer J, Helmstaeder C, Elger CE. Diagnostic delay in psychogenic non epileptic seizures. Neurology58, 493–495 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reuber M, Pukrop R, Bauer J, Helmstaedter C, Tessendorf N, Elger CE. Outcome in psychogenic nonepileptic seizures: 1 to 10 year follow up in 164 patients. Ann. Neurol.53, 305–311 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reuber M, Pukrop R, Mitchell AJ, Bauer J, Elger CE. Clinical significance of recurrent psychogenic nonepileptic seizure status. J. Neurol.250, 1355–1362 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin RC, Gilliam FG, Kilgore M et al. Improved healthcare utilization following EEG-confirmed diagnosis of nonepileptic psychogenic seizures. Seizure7, 385–390 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Timary P, Fouchet P, Sylin M et al. Non-epileptic seizures: delayed diagnosis in patients presenting with electroencephalographic and clinical signs of epileptic seizures. Seizure11, 193–197 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Gulick TA, Spinks IP, King DW. Pseudoseizures: ictal phenomena. Neurology32, 24–30 (1982).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• King DW, Gallagher BG, Murvin AJ et al. Pseudoseizures: diagnostic evaluation. Neurology32, 18–23 (1982).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ettinger BA, Devinsky O, Weisbrot DM, Goyal A, Shashikumar S. Headaches and other pain symptoms among patients with psychogenic non-epileptic seizures. Seizure8, 424–426 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Ramani S, Quesney L, Olson D, Gumnit R. Diagnosis of hysterical seizures in epileptic patients. Am. J. Psychiat.137, 705–709 (1980).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meierkord H, Will B, Fish D, Shorvon S. The clinical features and prognosis of pseudoseizures diagnosed using video EEG telemetry. Neurology41, 1643–1646 (1992).
   Google Scholar
• Leis AA, Ross MA, Summers AK. Psychogenic seizures: ictal characteristics and diagnostic pitfalls. Neurology42, 95–99 (1992).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuyk J. Leijten H, Meinardi H, Spinhoven P, Van Dyck R. The diagnosis of non-epileptic seizures: a review. Seizure6, 243–253 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boon PA, Williamson PD. The diagnosis of pseudoseizures. Clin. Neurol. Neurosurg.95, 1–8 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geyer JD, Payne TA, Drury I. The value of pelvic thrusting in the diagnosis of seizures and pseudoseizures. Neurology54, 227–229 (2000).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Benbadis SR, LaFrance WC Jr, Papandonatos GD, Korabathina K, Lin K, Kraemer HC. Interrater reliability of EEG-video monitoring. Neurology73, 843–846 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raymond AA, Gilmore WV, Scott CA, Fish DR, Smith SJ. Video EEG telemetry: apparent manifestation of both epileptic and non-epileptic attacks causing potential diagnostic pitfalls. Epileptic Disord.1, 101–106 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Lancman ME, Asconape JJ, Graves S, Gibson PA. Psychogenic seizures in children: long-term analysis of 43 cases. J. Child Neurol.9, 404–407 (1994).
   Google Scholar
• Duncan R, Oto M, Martin E, Pelosi A. Late onset psychogenic nonepileptic attacks. Neurology66, 1644–1647 (2006).
   Google Scholar
• Jedrzejczak J, Owczarek K, Majkowski J. Psychogenic pseudoepileptic seizures: clinical and electroencephalogram (EEG) video tape recordings. Eur. J. Neurol.6, 473–479 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Lesser RP, Luders H, Dinner DS. Evidence for epilepsy is rare in psychogenic seizures. Neurology33, 502–504 (1983).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benbadis SR, Agrawal V, Tatum WO. How many patients with psychogenic non-epileptic seizures also have epilepsy? Neurology57, 915–917 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duncan R, Oto M. Psychogenic nonepileptic seizures in patients with learning disability: comparison with patients with no learning disability. Epilepsy Behav.12, 183–186 (2008).
   Google Scholar
• Kloster R. Pseudo-epileptic v. epileptic seizures: a comparison. In: Pseudoepileptic Seizures. Gram L, Johanessen SI, Osterman PO, Silanpaa M (Eds). Wrightson Biomedical Publishing, Petersfield, UK, 3–16 (1993).
   Google Scholar
• Vein AM, Djukova GM, Vorobieva OB. Is panic attack a mask of psychogenic seizures? A comparative analysis of phenomenology of psychogenic seizures and panic attacks. Funct. Neurol.9, 153–159 (1994).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lempert T, Schmidt D. Natural history and outcome of Psychogenic seizures: a clinical study in 50 patients. J. Neurol.237, 35–38 (1990).
   Google Scholar
• Reuber M, Howlett S, Khan A, Grunewald RA. Non-epileptic seizures and other functional neurological symptoms: predisposing, precipitating and perpetuating factors. Psychosomatics48, 230–238 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gross M. Incestuous rape: a cause for hysterical seizures in four adolescent girls. Am. J. Orthopsychiat.49, 704–708 (1979).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gross M. Hysterical seizures: a sequel to incest during adolescence. Int. J. Adolesc. Med. Health2, 39–51 (1986).
   Google Scholar
• Goodwin J, Sims M, Bergman R. Hysterical seizures: a sequel to incest. Am. J. Orthopsychiat.49, 698–703 (1979).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greig E, Betts T. Epileptic seizures induced by sexual abuse. Pathogenic and pathoplastic factors. Seizure1, 269–274 (1992).
   Google Scholar
• Gumnit R, Gates J. Psychogenic seizures. Epilepsia27, 124–129 (1986).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bowman ES. Etiology and clinical course of pseudoseizures: relationship to trauma, depression and dissociation. Psychosomatics34, 333–342 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duncan R, Oto M. Predictors of antecedent factors in psychogenic nonepileptic attacks: multivariate analysis. Neurology71, 100–1006 (2008).
   Google Scholar
• Roy A. Hysteria. J. Psychosomat. Res.24, 53–56 (1980).
   Google Scholar
• Stewart R, Lovitt R, Stewart R. Are hysterical seizures more than hysteria? Am. J. Psychiat.139, 926–929 (1982).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krishnamoorthy S, Brown RJ, Trimble MR. Personality and posychopathology in nonepileptic attack disorder and epilepsy: a prospective study. Epilepsy Behav.2, 418–422 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilkus RJ, Dodrill CB, Thompson PM. Intensive EEG monitoring and psychological studies of patients with pseudoepileptic seizures. Epilepsia25, 100–107 (1984).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore P, Baker G, McDade G, Chadwick D, Brown S. Epilepsy, pseudoseizures and perceived family characteristics: a controlled study. Epilepsy Res.18, 75–83 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roy A. Hysterical seizures. Arch. Neurol.36, 447 (1979).
   Google Scholar
• Benbadis SM, Lancman ME, King LM, Swanson SJ. Preictal pseudosleep: a new finding in psychogenic seizures. Neurology47, 63–67 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thacker K, Devinsky O, Perrine K, Alper K, Luciano D. Non-epileptic seizures during apparent sleep. Ann. Neurol.33, 414–418 (1993).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Duncan R, Oto M, Russell AJC, Conway P. Pseudosleep events in patients with psychogenic non-epileptic seizures: prevalence and associations. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiat.75, 1009–1012 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGonigal A, Oto M, Russel AJ, Greene J, Duncan R. Outpatient video EEG recording in the diagnosis of non-epileptic seizures: a randomized controlled trial of simple suggestion techniques. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiat.72, 549–551 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reuber M, Enright SM, Goulding PJ. Postoperative pseudostatus: not everything that shakes is epilepsy. Anaesthesia55, 74–78 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glosser G, Roberts D, Glosser DS. Nonepileptic seizures after resective epilepsy surgery. Epilepsia40, 1750–1754 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oto M, Espie C, Pelosi A, Selkirk M, Duncan R. The safety of antiepileptic medication withdrawal in patients with non-epileptic seizures. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiat.76, 1682–1685 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walczack TS, Bogolioubov A. Weeping during psychogenic non-epileptic seizures. Epilepsia37, 208–210 (1996).
   Google Scholar
• Groppel P, Kapitany T, Baumgartner C. Cluster analysis of clinical seizure semiology of psychogenic nonepileptic seizures. Epilepsia41, 620–614 (2000).
   Google Scholar
• Opherk C, Hirsch LJ. Ictal heart rate differentiates epileptic from non-epileptic seizures. Neurology58, 636–638 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Palac SM, Kanner AM. Nonepileptic psychogenic spells: a neurologist’s perspective. In: Managing Epilepsy and Co-existing Disorders. Ettinger AB, Devinsky O (Eds). Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford, UK, 329–342 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Peguero E, Abou Khalil B, Fakhoury T, Matthews G. Self injury and incontinence in psychogenic seizures. Epilepsia36, 586–591 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parra J, Iriarte J, Kanner AM. Are we overusing the diagnosis of psychogenic non-epileptic events? Seizure8, 223–227 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Gates JR, Ramani V, Whalen S, Leowenstein RN. Ictal characteristics of pseudoseizures. Arch. Neurol.42, 1183–1187 (1985).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saygi S, Katz A, Marks DA et al. Frontal lobe partial seizures and psychogenic seizures: a comparison of clinical and ictal characteristics. Neurology42, 1274–1277 (1992).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gates JH, Luciano D, Devinsky O. The classification and treatment of non-epileptic events. In: Epilepsy and Behavior. Devinsky O, Theodore WH (Eds). Wiley-Liss, NY, USA, 251–263 (1991).
   Google Scholar
• Selwa LM, Geyer J, Nikakhtar N, Brown MB, Schuh LA, Drury I. Nonepileptic seizure outcome varies by type of spell and duration of illness. Epilepsia41, 1330–1334 (2000).
   Google Scholar
• Kanner AM, Morris HH, Luders H et al. Supplementary motor seizures mimicking pseudoseizures: some clinical differences. Neurology40, 1404–1407 (1990).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luther JS, McNamara JO, Carwile S, Miller P, Hope V. Pseudoepileptic seizures: methods and video analysis to aid diagnosis Ann. Neurol.12, 458–462 (1982).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bergen D, Ristanovic R. Weeping as a common element of pseudoseizures. Arch. Neurol.50, 1059–1060 (1993).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lesser RP: Psychogenic seizures. Neurology46, 1499–1507 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Devinsky O, Sanchez-Villasenor F, Vasquez B et al. Clinical profile of patients with epileptic and non-epileptic seizures. Neurology46, 1530–1533 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benbadis SM, Siegrist K, Tatum IV, Heriaud L, Anthony K. Short term outpatient video EEG with induction in the diagnosis of psychogenic seizures. Neurology63, 1728–1730 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Varela HL, Taylor DS, Benbadis SR. Short term video EEG monitoring with induction in a veterans administration population. J. Clin. Neurophysiol.24, 390–391 (2007).
   Google Scholar
• McGonigal A, Russell AJC, Mallik A, Oto M, Duncan R. Use of short-term video-EEG in the diagnosis of attack disorders. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiat.75, 771–772 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benbadis SR. Errors in EEGs and the misdiagnosis of epilepsy: importance, causes, consequences and proposed remedies. Epilepsy Behav.11, 257–262 (2007).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shen W, Bowman F, Markand O. Presenting the diagnosis of pseudoseizures Neurology40, 756–759 (1990).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hall-Patch L, Brown R, House A et al. Acceptability and effectiveness of a strategy for the communication of the diagnosis of psychogenic nonepileptic seizures. Epilepsia51, 70–78 (2010).
   Google Scholar
• Duncan R, Oto M. In: Gates and Rowan’s Nonepileptic Seizures. Schachter SC, LaFrance C (Eds). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 247–252 (2010).
   Google Scholar
• McKenzie P, Oto M, Russell A, Pelosi A, Duncan R. Early outcomes and predictors in 260 patients with psychogenic nonepileptic attacks (PNEA). Neurology74, 64–69 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wyllie E, Glazer JP, Benbadis S. Psychiatric features of children and adolescents with pseudoseizures. Arch. Paediatr. Adolesc. Med.153, 244–248 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benbadis SR. How many patients with pseudoseizures receive antiepileptic drugs prior to diagnosis? Eur. Neurol.41, 114–115 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reuber M, Elger CE. Psychogenic nonepileptic seizures: review and update. Epilepsy Behav.4, 205–216 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duncan R. The withdrawal of antiepileptic drugs in patients with nonepileptic seizures: safety considerations. Expert Opin. Drug Saf.5, 609–613 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oto M, Espie C, Duncan R. An exploratory randomized controlled trial of immediate versus delayed withdrawal of antiepileptic drugs in patients with psychogenic nonepileptic seizures. Epilepsia51, 1994–1999 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pedley TA, Mendiratta A, Walkczak TS. Seizures and epilepsy. In: Current Practice of Clinical Electroencephalography (3rd Edition). Ebersole JS, Pedley TA (Eds). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, PA, USA, 510–512 (2003)
   Google Scholar
• Van Cott AC, Brenner RP. Drug effects and toxic encephalopathies. In: Current Practice of Clinical Electroencephalography (3rd Edition). Ebersole JS, Pedley TA (Eds). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, PA, USA, 464–467 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• LaFrance WC, Rusch MD, Machan JT. What is ‘treatment as usual’ for nonepileptic seizures. Epilepsy Behav.12, 388–394 (2008).
   Google Scholar
• Buchanan N, Snars J. Pseudoseizures (non epileptic attack disorder) – clinical management and outcome in 50 patients. Seizure2, 141–146 (1993).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Farias ST, Thieman C. Psychogenic nonepileptic seizures: acute change in event frequency after presentation of the diagnosis. Epilepsy Behav.4, 424–429 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Goldstein LH, Chalder T, Chigwedere C et al. Cognitive behavioral therapy for psychogenic nonepileptic seizures. A pilot RCT. Neurology74, 1986–1994 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar