Imaging cognitive and behavioral symptoms in Parkinson’s disease

References

• Chaudhuri KR, Schapira AH. Non-motor symptoms of Parkinson’s disease: dopaminergic pathophysiology and treatment. Lancet Neurol.8(5), 464–474 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monchi O, Martinu K, Strafella AP. The contribution of neuroimaging for the study of cognitive deficits in Parkinson’s disease. Clin. EEG Neurosci.41(2), 76–81 (2010).
   Google Scholar
• Bowen FP, Kamienny RS, Burns MM, Yahr M. Parkinsonism: effects of levodopa treatment on concept formation. Neurology25(8), 701–704 (1975).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sagar HJ. Clinical similarities and differences between Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease. J. Neural Transm. Suppl.24, 87–99 (1987).
   Google Scholar
• Cools AR, van den Bercken JH, Horstink MW, van Spaendonck KP, Berger HJ. Cognitive and motor shifting aptitude disorder in Parkinson’s disease. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry47(5), 443–453 (1984).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor AE, Saint-Cyr JA, Lang AE. Frontal lobe dysfunction in Parkinson’s disease. The cortical focus of neostriatal outflow. Brain109, 845–883 (1986).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Downes JJ, Roberts AC, Sahakian BJ, Evenden JL, Morris RG, Robbins TW. Impaired extra-dimensional shift performance in medicated and unmedicated Parkinson’s disease: evidence for a specific attentional dysfunction. Neuropsychologia27(11–12), 1329–1343 (1989).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morris RG, Downes JJ, Sahakian BJ, Evenden JL, Heald A, Robbins TW. Planning and spatial working memory in Parkinson’s disease. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry51(6), 757–766 (1988).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown RG, MacCarthy B, Jahanshahi M, Marsden CD. Accuracy of self-reported disability in patients with parkinsonism. Arch. Neurol.46(9), 955–959 (1989).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Emre M. What causes mental dysfunction in Parkinson’s disease? Mov. Disord.18(Suppl. 6), S63–S71 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Janvin C, Aarsland D, Larsen JP, Hugdahl K. Neuropsychological profile of patients with Parkinson’s disease without dementia. Dement. Geriatr. Cogn. Disord.15(3), 126–131 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Owen AM, Doyon J, Dagher A, Sadikot A, Evans AC. Abnormal basal ganglia outflow in Parkinson’s disease identified with PET. Implications for higher cortical functions. Brain121, 949–965 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cools R, Stefanova E, Barker RA, Robbins TW, Owen AM. Dopaminergic modulation of high-level cognition in Parkinson’s disease: the role of the prefrontal cortex revealed by PET. Brain125, 584–594 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mattay VS, Tessitore A, Callicott JH et al. Dopaminergic modulation of cortical function in patients with Parkinson’s disease. Ann. Neurol.51(2), 156–164 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown RG, Marsden CD. Cognitive function in Parkinson’s disease: from description to theory. Trends Neurosci.13(1), 21–29 (1990).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewis SJ, Dove A, Robbins TW, Barker RA, Owen AM. Cognitive impairments in early Parkinson’s disease are accompanied by reductions in activity in frontostriatal neural circuitry. J. Neurosci.16(23), 6351–6356 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Huang C, Mattis P, Perrine K, Brown N, Dhawan V, Eidelberg D. Metabolic abnormalities associated with mild cognitive impairment in Parkinson disease. Neurology70(16), 1470–1477 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Albin RL, Young AB, Penney JB. The functional anatomy of basal ganglia disorders. Trends Neurosci.12(10), 366–375 (1989).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liepelt I, Reimold M, Maetzler W et al. Cortical hypometabolism assessed by a metabolic ratio in Parkinson‘s disease primarily reflects cognitive deterioration-[18F]FDG-PET. Mov. Disord.24(10), 1504–1511 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Raichle ME, MacLeod AM, Snyder AZ, Powers WJ, Gusnard DA, Shulman GL. A default mode of brain function. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA98, 676–682 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raichle ME, Snyder AZ. A default mode of brain function: a brief history of an evolving idea. Neuroimage37(4), 1083–1090 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Eimeren T, Monchi O, Ballanger B, Strafella AP. Dysfunction of the default mode network in Parkinson disease: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Arch. Neurol.66, 877–883 (2009).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nagano-Saito A, Liu J, Doyon J, Dagher A. Dopamine modulates default mode network deactivation in elderly individuals during the Tower of London task. Neurosci. Lett.458, 1–5 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Argyelan M, Carbon M, Ghilardi MF et al. Dopaminergic suppression of brain deactivation responses during sequence learning. J. Neurosci.28, 10687–10695 (2008).
   Google Scholar
• Dagher A, Owen AM, Boecker H, Brooks DJ. The role of the striatum and hippocampus in planning: a PET activation study in Parkinson’s disease. Brain124, 1020–1032 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monchi O, Petrides M, Doyon J, Postuma RB, Worsley K, Dagher A. Neural bases of set-shifting deficits in Parkinson’s disease. J. Neurosci.24, 702–710 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monchi O, Petrides M, Mejia-Constain B, Strafella AP. Cortical activity in Parkinson’s disease during executive processing depends on striatal involvement. Brain130(1), 233–244 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Samuel M, Ceballos-Baumann AO, Blin J et al. Evidence for lateral premotor and parietal overactivity in Parkinson’s disease during sequential and bimanual movements. A PET study. Brain120(6), 963–976 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brück A, Aalto S, Nurmi E, Bergman J, Rinne JO. Cortical 6-[18F]fluoro-L-dopa uptake and frontal cognitive functions in early Parkinson’s disease. Neurobiol. Aging26(6), 891–898 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klein JC, Eggers C, Kalbe E et al. Neurotransmitter changes in dementia with Lewy bodies and Parkinson disease dementia in vivo. Neurology74(11), 885–892 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rinne JO, Portin R, Ruottinen H et al. Cognitive impairment and the brain dopaminergic system in Parkinson disease: [18F]fluorodopa positron emission tomographic study. Arch. Neurol.57(4), 470–475 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stoessl AJ. Functional imaging studies of non-motoric manifestations of Parkinson’s disease. Parkinsonism Relat. Disord.15(S3), S13–S16 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Agid Y, Javoy-Agid E, Ruberg M. Biochemistry of neurotransmitters in Parkinson’s disease. In: Movement Disorders. Marsden CD, Fahn S (Eds). 166–230 (1987).
   Google Scholar
• Kish SJ, Shannak K, Hornykiewicz O. Uneven pattern of dopamine loss in the striatum of patients with idiopathic Parkinson’s disease. Pathophysiologic and clinical implications. N. Engl. J. Med.318(14), 876–880 (1988).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Owen AM Cognitive dysfunction in Parkinson’s disease: the role of frontostriatal circuitry. Neuroscientist10, 525–537 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marié RM, Barré L, Dupuy B, Viader F, Defer G, Baron JC. Relationships between striatal dopamine denervation and frontal executive tests in Parkinson’s disease. Neurosci. Lett.260(2), 77–80 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nobili F, Campus C, Arnaldi D et al. Cognitive-nigrostriatal relationships in de novo, drug-naive Parkinson’s disease patients: a [I-123]FP-CIT SPECT study. Mov. Disord.25(1), 35–43 (2010).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sawamoto N, Piccini P, Hotton G, Pavese N, Thielemans K, Brooks DJ. Cognitive deficits and striato–frontal dopamine release in Parkinson’s disease. Brain131, 1294–1302 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yeterian EH, Pandya DN. Prefrontostriatal connections in relation to cortical architectonic organization in rhesus monkeys. J. Comp. Neurol.312(1), 43–67 (1991).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosvold HE. The frontal lobe system: cortical–subcortical interrelationships. Acta Neurobiol. Exp.32, 439–460 (1972).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Swainson R, Rogers RD, Sahakian BJ, Summers BA, Polkey CE, Robbins TW. Probabilistic learning and reversal deficits in patients with Parkinson’s disease or frontal or temporal lobe lesions: possible adverse effects of dopaminergic medication. Neuropsychologia38, 596–612 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cools R, Barker RA, Sahakian BJ, Robbins TW. Enhanced or impaired cognitive function in Parkinson’s disease as a function of dopaminergic medication and task demands. Cereb. Cortex11, 1136–1143 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Owen AM, Evans AC, Petrides M. Evidence for a two-stage model of spatialworking memory processing within the lateral frontal cortex: a positron emission tomography study. Cereb. Cortex6, 31–38 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alexander GE, DeLong MR, Strick PL. Parallel organization of functionally segregated circuits linking basal ganglia and cortex. Annu. Rev. Neurosci.9, 357–381 (1986)
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grahn JA, Parkinson JA, Owen AM. The cognitive functions of the caudate nucleus. Prog. Neurobiol.86, 141–155 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brooks DJ. Imaging non-dopaminergic function in Parkinson’s disease. Mol. Imaging Biol.9(4), 217–222 (2007).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Asahina M, Suhara T, Shinotoh H, Inoue O, Suzuki K, Hattori T. Brain muscarinic receptors in progressive supranuclear palsy and Parkinson’s disease: a positron emission tomographic study. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry65(2), 155–163 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bohnen NI, Cham R. Postural control, gait, and dopamine functions in parkinsonian movement disorders. Clin. Geriatr. Med.22(4), 797–812 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dias R, Robbins TW, Roberts AC. Dissociation in prefrontal cortex of affective and attentional shifts. Nature380, 69–72 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cools R, Barker RA, Sahakian BJ, Robbins TW. L-dopa medication remediates cognitive inflexibility, but increases impulsivity in patients with Parkinson’s disease. Neuropsychologia41(11), 1431–1441 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jubault T, Monetta L, Strafella AP, Lafontaine AL, Monchi O. L-dopa medication in Parkinson’s disease restores activity in the motor cortico–striatal loop but does not modify the cognitive network. PLoS One4, 6154 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams-Gray CH, Hampshire A, Robbins TW, Owen AM, Barker RA. Catechol O-methyltransferase Val158Met genotype influences frontoparietal activity during planning in patients with Parkinson’s disease. J. Neurosci.27, 4832–4838 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams-Gray CH, Hampshire A, Barker RA, Owen AM. Attentional control in Parkinson’s disease is dependent on COMT val 158 met genotype. Brain131, 397–408 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Argyelan M, Carbon M, Ghilardi MF et al. Dopaminergic suppression of brain deactivation responses during sequence learning. J. Neurosci.28, 10687–10695 (2008).
   Google Scholar
• Bergman H, Wichmann T, DeLong MR. Reversal of experimental parkinsonism by lesions of the subthalamic nucleus. Science249(4975), 1436–1438 (1990).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Limousin P, Pollak P, Benazzouz A et al. Effect of parkinsonian signs and symptoms of bilateral subthalamic nucleus stimulation. Lancet345(8942), 91–95 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Limousin P, Greene J, Pollak P, Rothwell J, Benabid AL, Frackowiak R. Changes in cerebral activity pattern due to subthalamic nucleus or internal pallidum stimulation in Parkinson’s disease. Ann. Neurol.42(3), 283–291 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strafella AP, Paus T, Fraraccio M, Dagher A. Striatal dopamine release induced by repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation of the human motor cortex. Brain126(12), 2609–2615 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jahanshahi M, Ardouin CM, Brown RG et al. The impact of deep brain stimulation on executive function in Parkinson’s disease. Brain123(6), 1142–1154 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schroeder U, Kuehler A, Haslinger B et al. Subthalamic nucleus stimulation affects striato-anterior cingulate cortex circuit in a response conflict task: a PET study. Brain125(9), 1995–2004 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hershey T, Revilla FJ, Wernle A, Gibson PS, Dowling JL, Perlmutter JS. Stimulation of STN impairs aspects of cognitive control in PD. Neurology62(7), 1110–1114 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thobois S, Hotton GR, Pinto S et al. STN stimulation alters pallidal–frontal coupling during response selection under competition. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab.27(6), 1173–1184 (2007).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Frank MJ, Samanta J, Moustafa AA, Sherman SJ. Hold your horses: impulsivity, deep brain stimulation, and medication in parkinsonism. Science318(5854), 1309–1312 (2007)
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ballanger B, van Eimeren T, Moro E et al. Stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus and impulsivity: release your horses. Ann. Neurol.66(6), 817–824 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campbell MC, Karimi M, Weaver PM et al. Neural correlates of STN DBS-induced cognitive variability in Parkinson disease. Neuropsychologia46(13), 3162–3169 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalbe E, Voges J, Weber T et al. Frontal FDG-PET activity correlates with cognitive outcome after STN-DBS in Parkinson disease. Neurology72(1), 42–49 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer JS, Huang J, Chowdhury MH. MRI confirms mild cognitive impairments prodromal for Alzheimer’s, vascular and Parkinson-Lewy body dementias. J. Neurol. Sci.257(1–2), 97–104 (2007).
   Google Scholar
• Beyer MK, Janvin CC, Larsen JP, Aarsland D. A magnetic resonance imaging study of patients with Parkinson’s disease with mild cognitive impairment and dementia using voxel-based morphometry. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry78(3), 254–259 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dalaker TO, Zivadinov R, Larsen JP et al. Gray matter correlations of cognition in incident Parkinson’s disease. Mov. Disord.25(5), 629–633 (2010).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dalaker TO, Larsen JP, Dwyer MG et al. White matter hyperintensities do not impact cognitive function in patients with newly diagnosed Parkinson’s disease. Neuroimage47(4), 2083–2089 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor AE, Saint-Cyr JA, Lang AE. Frontal lobe dysfunction in Parkinson’s disease. The cortical focus of neostriatal outflow. Brain109, 845–883 (1986).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor AE, Saint-Cyr JA. Risk of dementia in Parkinson’s disease: a community-based, prospective study. Brain Cogn.28(3), 281–296 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dubois B, Pillon B. Cognitive deficits in Parkinson’s disease. J. Neurol.244(1), 2–8 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aarsland D, Andersen K, Larsen JP, Lolk A, Nielsen H, Kragh-Sørensen P. Prevalence and characteristics of dementia in Parkinson disease: an 8-year prospective study. Neurology56(6), 730–736 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aarsland D, Andersen K, Larsen JP, Lolk A, Kragh-Sørensen P. A 10-year study of the incidence of and factors predicting dementia in Parkinson’s disease. Arch. Neurol.60(3), 387–392 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hughes TA, Ross HF, Musa S et al. Diagnostic procedures for Parkinson’s disease dementia: recommendations from the movement disorder society task force. Neurology54(8), 1596–1602 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Emre M, Aarsland D, Brown R et al. Clinical diagnostic criteria for dementia associated with Parkinson’s disease. Mov. Disord.22(12), 2007, 1689–1707 (2007).
   Google Scholar
• Lippa CF, Duda JE, Grossman M et al. DLB and PDD boundary issues: diagnosis, treatment, molecular pathology, and biomarkers. Neurology68(11), 812–819 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klein JC, Eggers C, Kalbe E et al. Neurotransmitter changes in dementia with Lewy bodies and Parkinson disease dementia in vivo. Neurology74(11), 885–892 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peppard RF, Martin WR, Carr GD et al. Cerebral glucose metabolism in Parkinson’s disease with and without dementia. Arch. Neurol.49(12), 1262–1268 (1992).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Albin RL, Minoshima S, D’Amato CJ, Frey KA, Kuhl DA, Sima AA. Fluoro-deoxyglucose positron emission tomography in diffuse Lewy body disease. Neurology47(2), 462–466 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vander Borght T, Minoshima S, Giordani B et al. Cerebral metabolic differences in Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s diseases matched for dementia severity. J. Nucl. Med.38(5), 797–802 (1997).
   Google Scholar
• Walker Z, Costa DC et al. Differentiation of dementia with Lewy bodies from Alzheimer’s disease using a dopaminergic presynaptic ligand. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry73(2), 134–140 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ito K, Nagano-Saito A, Kato T et al. Striatal and extrastriatal dysfunction in Parkinson’s disease with dementia: a 6-[18F]fluoro-L-dopa PET study. Brain125(Pt 6), 1358–1365 (2002).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hilker R, Thomas AV, Klein JC et al. Dementia in Parkinson disease: functional imaging of cholinergic and dopaminergic pathways. Neurology65(11), 1716–1722 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shimada H, Hirano S, Shinotoh H et al. Mapping of brain acetylcholinesterase alterations in Lewy body disease by PET. Neurology73(4), 273–278 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brooks DJ. Amyloid β-peptide and the dementia of Parkinson's disease. Mov. Disord.24(S2), S742–S747 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jendroska K, Lees AJ, Poewe W, Daniel SE. Amyloid β-peptide and the dementia of Parkinson’s disease. Mov. Disord.11(6), 647–653 (1996).
   Google Scholar
• Edison P, Rowe CC, Rinne JO et al. Amyloid load in Parkinson’s disease dementia and Lewy body dementia measured with [11C]PIB positron emission tomography. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry79(12), 1331–1338 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gomperts SN, Rentz DM, Moran E et al. Imaging amyloid deposition in Lewy body diseases. Neurology71(12), 903–910 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Archer HA, Edison P, Brooks DJ et al. Amyloid load and cerebral atrophy in Alzheimer’s disease: an (11)C-PiB positron emission tomography study. Ann. Neurol.60, 145–147 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fagan AM, Mintun MA, Mach RH et al. Inverse relation between in vivo amyloid imaging load and cerebrospinal fluid Ab42 in humans. Ann. Neurol.59, 512–519 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Price JL, Morris JC. Tangles and plaques in nondemented aging and ‘preclinical’ Alzheimer’s disease. Ann. Neurol.45, 358–368 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burack MA, Hartlein J, Flores HP et al.In vivo amyloid imaging in autopsy-confirmed Parkinson disease with dementia. Neurology74(1), 77–84 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weintraub D, Koester J, Potenza MN et al. Impulse control disorders in Parkinson disease: a cross-sectional study of 3090 patients. Arch. Neurol.67(5), 589–595 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giladi N, Weitzman N, Schreiber S, Shabtai H, Peretz C. New onset heightened interest or drive for gambling, shopping, eating or sexual activity in patients with Parkinson’s disease: the role of dopamine agonist treatment and age at motor symptoms onset. J. Psychopharmacol.21(5), 501–506 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Voon V, Hassan K, Zurowski M et al. Prospective prevalence of pathologic gambling and medication association in Parkinson disease. Neurology66(11), 1750–1752 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shaffer HJ. Strange bedfellows: a critical view of pathological gambling and addiction. Addiction94(10), 1445–1448 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dodd ML, Klos KJ, Bower JH et al. Pathological gambling caused by drugs used to treat Parkinson disease. Arch. Neurol.62(9), 1377–1381 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pontone G, Williams JR, Bassett SS, Marsh L. Clinical features associated with impulse control disorders in Parkinson disease. Neurology67(7), 1258–1261 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Potenza MN. The neurobiology of pathological gambling and drug addiction: an overview and new findings. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B. Biol. Sci.363(1507), 3181–3189 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cilia R, Ko JH, Cho SS et al. Reduced dopamine transporter density in the ventral striatum of patients with Parkinson’s disease and pathological gambling. Neurobiol. Dis.39(1), 98–104 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cools R. Uneven pattern of dopamine loss in the striatum of patients with idiopathic Parkinson’s disease. Pathophysiologic and clinical implications. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev.30(1), 1–23 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steeves TD, Miyasaki J, Zurowski M et al. Increased striatal dopamine release in Parkinsonian patients with pathological gambling: a [11C] raclopride PET study. Brain132(5), 1376–1385 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Eimeren T, Ballanger B, Pellecchia G, Miyasaki JM, Lang AE, Strafella AP. Dopamine agonists diminish value sensitivity of the orbitofrontal cortex: a trigger for pathological gambling in Parkinson‘s disease? Neuropsychopharmacology34(13), 2758–2766 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abler B, Hahlbrock R, Unrath A, Grön G, Kassubek J. At-risk for pathological gambling: imaging neural reward processing under chronic dopamine agonists. Brain132(9), 2396–2402 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Eimeren T, Pellecchia G, Cilia R et al. Drug-induced deactivation of inhibitory networks predicts pathological gambling in PD. Neurology DOI: 10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181fc27fa (2010) (Epub ahead of print).
   Google Scholar
• Volkow ND, Fowler JS, Wang GJ. Role of dopamine in drug reinforcement and addiction in humans: results from imaging studies. Behav. Pharmacol.13(5–6), 355–366 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Volkow ND, Fowler JS, Wang GJ, Baler R, Telang F. Imaging dopamine‘s role in drug abuse and addiction. Neuropharmacology56(Suppl. 1), 3–8 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang GJ, Volkow ND, Thanos PK, Fowler JS. Similarity between obesity and drug addiction as assessed by neurofunctional imaging: a concept review. J. Addict. Dis.23(3), 39–53 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamidovic A, Kang UJ, de Wit H. Effects of low to moderate acute doses of pramipexole on impulsivity and cognition in healthy volunteers. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol.28(1), 45–51 (2008).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lee JY, Kim JM, Kim JW et al. Association between the dose of dopaminergic medication and the behavioral disturbances in Parkinson disease. Parkinsonism Relat. Disord.16(3), 202–207 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown R, Jahanshahi M. Depression in Parkinson’s disease: a psychosocial viewpoint. Adv. Neurol.65, 61–84 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Cummings JL, Masterman DL. Depression in patients with Parkinson’s disease. Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry14(9), 711–718 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Forth Edition. American Psychiatric Association, VA, USA (1994).
   Google Scholar
• Aarsland D, Marsh L, Schrag A. Neuropsychiatric symptoms in Parkinson’s disease. Mov. Disord.24(15), 2175–2186 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Braak H, Ghebremedhin E, Rub U, Bratzke H, Del Tredici K. Stages in the development of Parkinson’s disease-related pathology. Cell Tissue Res.318, 121–134 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paulus W, Jellinger K. The neuropathologic basis of different clinical subgroups of Parkinson’s disease. J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol.50, 743–755 (1991).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Remy P, Doder M, Lees A, Turjanski N, Brooks D. Depression in Parkinson’s disease: loss of dopamine and noradrenaline innervation in the limbic system. Brain128(6), 1314–1322 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weintraub D, Newberg AB, Cary MS et al. Striatal dopamine transporter imaging correlates with anxiety and depression symptoms in Parkinson’s disease. J. Nucl. Med.46(2), 227–232 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koerts J, Leenders KL, Koning M, Portman AT, van Beilen M. Striatal dopaminergic activity (FDOPA-PET) associated with cognitive items of a depression scale (MADRS) in Parkinson’s disease. Eur. J. Neurosci.25(10), 3132–3136 (2007).
   Google Scholar
• Brooks DJ. Imaging approaches to Parkinson disease. J. Nucl. Med.51(4), 596–609 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boileau I, Warsh JJ, Guttman M et al. Elevated serotonin transporter binding in depressed patients with Parkinson’s disease: a preliminary PET study with [11C]DASB Mov. Disord.23(12), 1776–1780 (2008).
   Google Scholar
• Kim SE, Choi JY, Choe YS, Choi Y, Lee WY. Serotonin transporters in the midbrain of Parkinson’s disease patients: a study with 123I-β-CIT SPECT. J. Nucl. Med.44(6), 870–876 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Bohnen NI, Kaufer DI, Hendrickson R, Constantine GM, Mathis CA, Moore RY. Cortical cholinergic denervation is associated with depressive symptoms in Parkinson’s disease and parkinsonian dementia. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry78(6), 641–643 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feldmann A, Illes Z, Kosztolanyi P et al. Morphometric changes of gray matter in Parkinson’s disease with depression: a voxel-based morphometry study. Mov. Disord.23(1), 42–46 (2008).
   Google Scholar
• Kostic VS, Agosta F et al. Regional patterns of brain tissue loss associated with depression in Parkinson disease. Neurology75(10), 857–863 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marin RS. Differential diagnosis and classification of apathy. Am. J. Psychiatry147(1), 22–30 (1990).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drapier D, Drapier S, Sauleau P et al. Does subthalamic nucleus stimulation induce apathy in Parkinson’s disease? J. Neurol.253(8), 1083–1091 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levy R, Dubois B. Apathy and the functional anatomy of the prefrontal cortex-basal ganglia circuits. Cereb. Cortex16(7), 916–928 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reijnders JS, Scholtissen B, Weber WE, Aalten P, Verhey FR, Leentjens AF. Neuroanatomical correlates of apathy in Parkinson’s disease: a magnetic resonance imaging study using voxel-based morphometry. Mov Disord.25(14), 2318–2325 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Le Jeune F, Drapier D, Bourguignon A et al. Subthalamic nucleus stimulation in Parkinson disease induces apathy: a PET study. Neurology73(21), 1746–1751 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thobois S, Ardouin C, Lommee E et al. Non-motor dopamine withdrawal syndrome after surgery for Parkinson’s disease: predictors and underlying mesolimbic denervation. Brain133(4), 1111–1127 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barnes J, David AS. Visual hallucinations in Parkinson’s disease: a review and phenomenological survey. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry70(6), 727–733 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diederich NJ, Fénelon G, Stebbins G, Goetz CG. Hallucinations in Parkinson disease. Nat. Rev. Neurol.5(6), 331–342 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Banerjee AK, Falkai PG, Savidge M. Visual hallucinations in the elderly associated with the use of levodopa. Postgrad. Med. J.65(764), 358–361 (1989).
   Google Scholar
• Holroyd S, Currie L, Wooten GF Prospective study of hallucinations and delusions in Parkinson’s disease. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry70(6), 734–738 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boecker H, Ceballos-Baumann AO, Volk D, Conrad B, Forstl H, Haussermann P. Metabolic alterations in patients with Parkinson disease and visual hallucinations. Arch. Neurol.64(7), 984–988 (2007).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Okada K, Suyama N, Oguro H, Yamaguchi S, Kobayashi S. Medication-induced hallucination and cerebral blood flow in Parkinson’s disease J. Neurol.246(5), 365–368 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nagano-Saito A, Washimi Y, Arahata Y et al. Visual hallucination in Parkinson’s disease with FDG PET. Mov. Disord.19(7), 801–806 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramírez-Ruiz B, Martí MJ, Tolosa E et al. Brain response to complex visual stimuli in Parkinson’s patients with hallucinations: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Mov. Disord.23(16), 2335–2343 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stebbins GT, Goetz CG, Carrillo MC et al. Altered cortical visual processing in PD with hallucinations: an fMRI study. Neurology63(8), 1409–1416 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allen P, Larøi F, McGuire PK, Aleman A. The hallucinating brain: a review of structural and functional neuroimaging studies of hallucinations. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev.32(1), 175–191 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ibarretxe-Bilbao N, Ramirez-Ruiz B, Junque C et al. Differential progression of brain atrophy in Parkinson’s disease with and without visual hallucinations. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry81(6), 650–657 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ballanger B, Strafella AP, van Eimeren T et al. Serotonin 2A receptors and visual hallucinations in Parkinson disease. Arch. Neurol.67(4), 416–421 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halldin C, Farde L, Högberg T et al. Carbon-11-FLB 457: a radioligand for extrastriatal D2 dopamine receptors J. Nucl. Med36(7), 1275–1281 (1995).
   Google Scholar
• Olsson H, Halldin C, Farde L. Differentiation of extrastriatal dopamine D2 receptor density and affinity in the human brain using PET. Neuroimage22(2), 794–803 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slifstein M, Hwang DR, Huang Y et al.In vivo affinity of [18F]fallypride for striatal and extrastriatal dopamine D2 receptors in nonhuman primates. Psychopharmacology175(3), 274–286 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Suhara T, Sudo Y, Okauchi T et al. Extrastriatal dopamine D2 receptor density and affinity in the human brain measured by 3D PET. Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol.2(2), 73–82 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Monchi O, Ko JH, Strafella AP. Striatal dopamine release during performance of executive functions: a [(11)C] raclopride PET study. Neuroimage33(3), 907–912 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ginovart N, Galineau L, Willeit M et al. Binding characteristics and sensitivity to endogenous dopamine of [11C]-(+)-PHNO, a new agonist radiotracer for imaging the high-affinity state of D2 receptors in vivo using positron emission tomography. J. Neurochem.97(4), 1089–1103 (2006).
   Google Scholar
• Narendran R, Slifstein M, Guillin O et al. Dopamine (D2/3) receptor agonist positron emission tomography radiotracer [11C]-(+)-PHNO is a D3 receptor preferring agonist in vivo. Synapse60(7), 485–495 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Narendran R, Frankle WG, Mason NS et al. Positron emission tomography imaging of D(2/3) agonist binding in healthy human subjects with the radiotracer [(11)C]-N-propyl-norapomorphine: preliminary evaluation and reproducibility studies. Synapse63(7), 574–584 (2009).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Boileau I, Guttman M, Rusjan P et al.Decreased binding of the D3 dopamine receptor-preferring ligand [11C]-(+)-PHNO in drug-naive Parkinson’s disease. Brain132(5), 1366–1375 (2009).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar