Immunosenescence and herd immunity: with an ever-increasing aging population do we need to rethink vaccine schedules?

References

• Lutz W, Sanderson W, Scherbov S. Doubling of world population unlikely. Nature387, 803–805 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oeppen J, Vaupel JW. Demography. Broken limits to life expectancy. Science296, 1029–1031 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fulop T, Larbi A, Witkowski JM et al. Aging, frailty and age-related diseases. Biogerontology11, 547–563 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lang PO, Mitchell WA, Lapenna A, Pitts D, Aspinall R. Immunological pathogenesis of main aged-related disease and frailty: role of immunosenescence. Eur. Geriatric Med.1, 112–121 (2010).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yong V, Saito Y. Trends in healthy life expectancy in Japan: 1986–2004. Demographic Res.20, 467–494 (2009).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parker MG, Schön P, Lagergren M, Thorslund M. Functional ability in the elderly Swedish population from 1980 to 2005. Eur. J. Ageing5, 299–309 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gavazzi G, Krause KH. Ageing and infection. Lancet Infect. Dis.2, 659–666 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoshikawa TT. Epidemiology and unique aspects of aging and infectious diseases. Clin. Infect. Dis.30, 931–933 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lang PO, Govind S, Mitchell WA, Siegrist CA, Aspinall R. Vaccine effectiveness in older individuals: what has been learned from the influenza-vaccine experience. Ageing Res. Rev.10, 389–395 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Influenza vaccines. Wkly Epidemiol. Rec.80, 279–287 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hall CB, Walsh EE, Long CE, Schnabel KC. Immunity to and frequency of reinfection with respiratory syncytial virus. J. Infect. Dis.163, 693–698 (1991).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henderson FW, Collier AM, Clyde WA Jr, Denny FW. Respiratory-syncytial-virus infections, reinfections and immunity. A prospective, longitudinal study in young children. N. Eng. J. Med.300, 530–534 (1979).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fulton RB, Varga SM. Effects of aging on the adaptive immune response to respiratory virus infections. Ageing Health5, 775 (2009).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Walsh EE, Peterson DR, Falsey AR. Risk factors for severe respiratory syncytial virus infection in elderly persons. J. Infect. Dis.189, 233–238 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Falsey AR, Wlash EE, Hayden FG. Rhinovirus and coronavirus infection-associated hospitalizations among older adults. J. Infect. Dis.185, 1338–1341 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghosh S, Champlin R, Couch R et al. Rhinovirus infections in myelosuppressed adult blood and marrow transplant recipients. Clin. Infect. Dis.29, 553–555 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glezen PW, Greenberg SB, Atmar RL, Piedra PA, Couch RB. Impact of respiratory virus infections on persons with chronic underlying conditions. JAMA283, 499–505 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Louie JK, Yagi S, Nelson FA et al. Rhinovirus outbreak in a long term care facility for elderly persons associated with unusually high mortality. Clin. Infect. Dis.41, 262–265 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization (WHO). The Centralized Information System for Infectious Diseases (CISID). Geneva, Switzerland (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Cabellos C, Verdaguer R, Olmo M et al. Community-acquired bacterial meningitis in elderly patients: experience over 30 years. Medicine88, 115–119 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lang PO, Govind S, Michel JP, Aspinall R, Mitchell WA. Immunosenescence: implications for vaccination programmes in adults. Maturitas68, 322–330 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Metersky ML, Dransfield MT, Jackson LA. Determining the optional pneumococcal vaccination in adults: is there a role for the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine? Chest138, 486–490 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michel JP, Lang PO. Promoting life course vaccination. Rejuvenation Res.14, 75–81 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Herck K, Leuridan E, Van Damme P. Schedules for hepatitis B vaccination of risk groups: balancing immunogenicity and compliance. Sex Transm. Infect.83, 426–432 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weinberg B, Keller M, Fisher KH et al. Decreased antibody titers and booster responses in tick-born encephalitis vaccinees aged 50–90 years. Vaccine28, 3511–3515 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Romero-Steiner S, Musher DM, Cetron MS et al. Reduction in functional antibody activity against Streptococcus pneumoniae in vaccinated elderly individuals highly correlates with decreased IgG antibody avidity. Clin. Infect. Dis.29, 281–288 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weinberg A, Zhang JH, Oxman MN et al. Varicella-zoster virus-specific immune responses to herpes zoster in elderly participants in a trial of a clinically effective zoster vaccine. J. Infect. Dis.200, 1068–1076 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aspinall R, Pitts D, Lapenna A, Mitchell WA. Immunity in the elderly: the role of the thymus. J. Comp. Path.142, S111–S115 (2010).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Virgin HW, Wherry JE, Ahmed R. Redefining chronic viral infection. Cell138, 30–50 (2010).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Panda A, Quian F, Mohanty S et al. Age-associated decrease in TLR function in primary human dendritic cells predicts influenza vaccine response. J. Immunol.184, 2518–2527 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frasca D, Diaz A, Romero M et al. Intrinsic defects in B cell response to seasonal influenza vaccination in elderly humans. Vaccine28, 8077–8084 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siegrist CA, Aspinall R. B-cell responses to vaccination at the extreme of age. Nature Immunol.9, 185–193 (2009).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lesourd B. Nutritional factors and immunological ageing. Proc. Nutr. Soc.65, 319–325 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lang PO, Samaras D. Aging adults and seasonal influenza: does the vitamin D status (h)arm the body? J. Aging Res.2012, 806198 (2012).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kelley KW, Weigent DA, Kooijman R. Protein hormones and immunity. Brain Behav. Immun.21, 384–392 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lang PO, Govind S, Mitchell WA et al. Influenza vaccine effectiveness in aged individuals: the role played by cell-mediated immunity. Eur. Geriatr. Med.1, 233–238 (2010).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McElhaney JE, Xie D, Hager WD et al. T cell responses are better correlates of vaccine protection in the elderly. J. Immunol.176, 6333–6339 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frasca D, Riley RL, Blomberg BB. Humoral immune response and B-cell functions including immunoglobulin class switch are downregulated in aged mice and humans. Semin. Immunol.17, 378–384 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grubeck-Loebenstein B, Della Bella S, Iorio AM et al. Immunosenescence and vaccine failure in elderly. Aging Clin. Exp. Res.21, 201–209 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Melegaro A, Edmunds WJ. The 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine. Part I. Efficacy of PPV in the elderly: a comparison of meta-analyses. Eur. J. Epidemiol.19, 353–363 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson RM, May RM. Vaccination and herd immunity to infectious diseases. Lancet335, 641–645 (1990).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• John TJ, Samuel R. Herd immunity and herd effect: new insights and definitions. Eur. J. Epidemiol.16, 601–606 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reichert TA, Sagaya N, Fedson DS, Glezen WP, Simonsen L, Tashiro M. The Japanese experience with vaccinating schoolchildren against influenza. N. Engl. J. Med.344, 889–896 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carman WF, Elder AG, Wallace LA et al. Effects of influenza vaccination of health-care workers on mortality of elderly people in long-term care: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet355, 93–97 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kyaw MH, Lynfield R, Schaffner W et al. Effect of introduction of the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine on drug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae.N. Engl. J. Med.354, 1455–1463 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitney CG, Farley MM, Hadler J et al. Decline in invasive pneumococcal disease after the introduction of protein-polysaccharide conjugate vaccine. N. Eng. J. Med.348, 1737–1746 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lang PO. Adverse effects of the herd immunity or when vaccines become deleterious for the epidemiology of infectious diseases. Geriatr. Psychol. Neuropsychiatr. Vieil.9, 11–19 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sugaya N, Takeuchi Y. Mass vaccination of schoolchildren against influenza and its impact on the influenza-associated mortality rate among children in Japan. Clin. Infect. Dis.41, 939–947 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Takahashi M, Nagai M. Estimation of excess mortality associated with influenza epidemics specific for sex, age and cause of death in Japan during 1987–2005. Nippon Eiseigaku Zasshi63, 5–19 (2008).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Blomberg BB, Frasca D, Dunn-Walters D, Human B-cell senescence and pulmonary infections. Open Longev. Sci. (2012) (In Press).
   Google Scholar
• Proesmans MJ. Pneumococcal vaccination: time to move on? Eur. J. Pediatr.169, 1435–1437 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Messina AF, Katz-Gaynor K, Barton T et al. Impact of the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine on serotype distribution and antimicrobial resistance of invasive Streptococcus pneumoniae isolates in Dallas, TX, children from 1999 through 2005. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J.26, 461–467 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tanaka M, Vitek CR, Pascual FB et al. Trends in pertussis among infants in the United States, 1980–1999. JAMA290, 2968–2975 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Amersfoorth SC, Schouls LM, van der Heide HG et al. Analysis of Bordetella pertussis population in European countries with different vaccination policies. J. Clin. Microbiol.43, 2837–2843 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guris D, Strebel PM, Bardenheier B et al. Changing epidemiology of pertussis in the United States: increasing reported incidence among adolescents and adults, 1990–1996. Clin. Infect. Dis.28, 1230–1237 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Celentano LP, Massari M, Paramatti D, Salmaso S, Tozzi AE. Resurgence of pertussis in Europe. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J.24, 761–765 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Greef SC, Mooi FR, Schellekens JF, de Melker HE. Impact of acellular pertussis preschool booster vaccination on disease burden of pertussis in the Netherlands. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J.27, 218–223 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hicks LA, Harrison LH, Flannery B et al. Incidence of pneumococcal disease due to non-pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV7) serotypes in the United States during the era of widespread PCV7 vaccination, 1998–2004. J. Infect. Dis.196, 1346–1354 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pai R, Moore MR, Pilishvili T et al. Postvaccine genetic structure of Streptococcus pneumoniae serotype 19A from children in the United States. J. Infect. Dis.192, 1988–1995 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Byington CL, Korgenski K, Daly J et al. Impact of the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine on pneumococcal parapneumonic empyema. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J.25, 250–254 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pelton SI, Huot H, Finkelstein JA et al. Emergence of 19A as virulent and multidrug resistant pneumococcus in Massachusetts following universal immunization of infants with pneumococcal conjugate vaccine. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J.26, 468–472 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singleton RJ, Hennessy TW, Bulkow LR et al. Invasive pneumococcal disease caused by nonvaccine serotypes among Alaska native children with high levels of 7-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine coverage. JAMA297, 1784–1792 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steenhoff AP, Shah SS, Ratner AJ et al. Emergence of vaccine-related pneumococcal serotypes as a cause of bacteremia. Clin. Infect. Dis.42, 907–914 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thigpen MC, Whitney CG, Messonnier NE et al. Bacterial meningitis in the United States, 1998–2007. N. Engl. J. Med.364, 2016–2025 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonmarin I, Santa-Olalla P, Lévy-Bruhl D. Modeling the impact of vaccination on the epidemiology of varicella zoster virus. Rev. Epidemiol. Sante Publique56, 323–331 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kimberlin DW, Whitley RJ. Varicella-zoster vaccine for the prevention of herpes zoster. N. Eng. J. Med.356, 1338–1343 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lang PO, Michel JP. Herpes Zoster vaccine: what are the potential benefits for the ageing and older adults? Eur. Geriatr. Med.2(3), 134–139 (2011).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoshikawa TT. Perspective: aging and infectious diseases: past, present, and future. J. Infect. Dis.176, 1053–1057 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poland GA, Jacobson RM, Ovsyannikova IG. Trends affecting the future of vaccine development and delivery: the role of demographics, regulatory science, the anti-vaccine movement, and vaccinomics. Vaccine27, 3240–3244 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poland GA, Belmin J, Langley J, Michel JP, Van Damme P, Wicker S. A global prescription for adult immunization: time is catching up with us. Vaccine28, 7137–7139 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poland GA, Jacobson RM. The age-old struggle against the antivaccinationists. N. Eng. J. Med.364, 97–99 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin GS, Mannino DM, Eaton S, Moss M. The epidemiology of sepsis in the United States from 1979 through 2000. N. Eng. J. Med.348, 1546–1554 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michel JP, Chidiac C, Grubeck-Loebenstein B et al. Advocating vaccination of adults aged 60 years and older in Western Europe: statement by the joint Vaccine Working Group of the European Union Geriatric Medicine Society and the International Association of Gerontology and Geriatrics – European Region. Rejuvenation Res.12, 127–135 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baeyens JP, Lang PO, Michel JP. Willingness to vaccinate and to be vaccinated in adults. Ageing Clin. Exp. Res.21, 244–249 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vaughn JA, Miller RA. Update on immunizations in adults. Am. Fam. Physic.84, 1015–1020 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halperin SA. Pertussis – a disease and vaccine for all ages. N. Engl. J. Med.353, 1615–1617 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moxon ER, Siegrist CA. The next decade of vaccines: societal and scientific challenges. Lancet378, 348–359 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rhen M, Eriksson S, Clements M, Bergström S, Normark SJ. The basis of persistent bacterial infections. Trends Microbiol.11, 80–86 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones KE, Patel NG, Levy MA et al. Global trends in emerging infectious diseases. Nature451, 990–993 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nash D, Mostashari F, Fine A et al. The outbreak of West Nile virus infection in the New York City area in 1999. N. Engl. J. Med.344, 1807–1814 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berner YN, Lang R, Chowers MY. Outcome of West Nile fever in older adults. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc.50, 1844–1846 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cliff A, Haggett P. Time, travel and infection. Br. Med. Bull.69, 87–99 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stuck AE, Kjaricha K, Dapp U et al. Development, feasibility and performance of a health appraisal questionnaire for older persons. BMC Med. Res. Methodol.7, 1 (2007).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Poland GA, Ovsyannikova IG, Jacobson RM. Application of pharmacogenomics to vaccines. Pharmacogenomics10, 837–852 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sette A, Rappuoli R. Reverse vaccinology: developing vaccines in the era of genomics. Immunity33, 530–541 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Update: mumps outbreak – New York and New Jersey, 2009–2010. MMWR Morb. Mortal Wkly Rep.59, 125–129 (2010).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Impact of vaccine universally recommended for children – United States, 1990–1998. MMWR Morb. Mortal Wkly Rep.48, 243–248 (1999).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wolfe RM, Sharp LK, Anti-vaccinationists past and present. BMJ325, 430–432 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wakefield AJ, Murch SH, Anthony A et al. Ileal-lymphoid-nodular hyperplasia, non-specific colitis, and pervasive developmental disorder in children. Lancet351, 637–641 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization (WHO). Outbreak news: measles outbreaks in Europe. Wkly Epidemiol. Rec.86, 173–176 (2011).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hambleton S, Arvin AM. Chickenpox party or varicella vaccine? Adv. Exp. Med. Biol.568, 11–24 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bayer R. The continuing tensions between individual rights and public health. Taking point on public health versus civil liberties. EMBO Rep.8, 1099–1103 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parodi V, de Florentiis D, Martini M, Ansaldi F. Inactivated influenza vaccines: recent progress and implication for the elderly. Drugs Ageing28, 93–106 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paccalin M, Weinberger B, Nicolas JF, Van Damme P, Mégard Y. The intradermal vaccination route – an attractive opportunity for influenza vaccination in the elderly Eur. Geriatr. Med.1, 82–87 (2010).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Licensure of a high-dose inactivated influenza vaccine for person aged > or = 65 years (Fluzone High-Dose) and guidance for use – United States. MMWR Morb. Mortal Wkly Rep.59, 485–486 (2010).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ansaldi F, Canepa P, Parodi V et al. Adjuvanted seasonal influenza vaccines and perpetual viral metamorphosis: the importance of cross-protection. Vaccine27, 3345–3348 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goronzy JJ, Fulbright JW, Crowson CS, Poland GA, O’Fallon WM, Weyand CM. Value of immunological markers in predicting responsiveness to influenza vaccination in elderly individuals. J. Virol.75, 12182–12187 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saurwein-Teissl M, Lung TL, Marx F et al. Lack of antibody production following immunization in old age: association with CD8+CD28- T cell clonal expansions and an imbalance in the production of Th1 and Th2 cytokines. J. Immunol.168, 5893–5899 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frasca D, Diaz A, Romera M, Landin AM, Blomberg BB. Age effects on B cells and humoral immunity in humans. Ageing Res. Rev.10, 330–335 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lang PO, Mitchell WA, Govind S, Aspinall R. Real time-PCR assay estimating the naive T-cell pool in whole blood and dried blood spot samples: pilot study in young adults. J. Immunol. Methods369, 133–140 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchell WA, Lang PO, Aspinall R. Tracing thymic output in older individuals. Clin. Exp. Immunol.161, 497–503 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hazenberg MD, Borghans JAM, de Boer DJ, Miedema F. Thymic output: a bad TREC record. Nat. Immunol.4, 97–99 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aspinall R, Pido-Lopez J, Imami N et al. Old rhesus macaques treated with interleukin-7 show increased TREC levels and respond well to influenza vaccination. Rejuvenation Res.10(1), 5ndash;17 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Govind S, Lapenna A, Lang PO, Aspinall R. Immunotherapy of immunosenescence: who, how and when. Open Longev. Sci. (2012) (In Press).
   Google Scholar