Soil Temperature and Soil Moisture Patterns in a Himalayan Alpine Treeline Ecotone

References Cited

• Ad-hoc-Arbeitsgruppe Boden , 2005: Bodenkundliche Kartieranleitung. Bundesanstalt für Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe. Hannover, Germany: Schweizerbart, 438 pp.
   Google Scholar
• Aulitzky, H. , 1960: Die Bodentemperaturverhältnisse an einer zentralalpinen Hanglage beiderseits der Waldgrenze. Archiv für Meteorologie, Geophysik und Bioklimatologie, Serie B 10(4): 445–532.
   Google Scholar
• Aulitzky, H. , 1961: Die Bodentemperaturverhältnisse in der Kampfzone oberhalb der Waldgrenze und im subalpinen Zirben-Lärchenwald. Mitteilungen der Forstlichen Bundesversuchsanstalt Mariabrunn , 59: 153–208.
   Google Scholar
• Bader, M.Y. , van Geloof, I. , and Rietkerk, M. , 2007: High solar radiation hinders tree regeneration above the alpine treeline in northern Ecuador. Plant Ecology , 191(1): 33–45.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balducci, L. , Deslauriers, A. , Giovannelli, A. , Rossi, S. , and Rathgeber, C. B. K. , 2013: Effects of temperature and water deficit on cambial activity and woody ring features in Picea mariana saplings. Tree Physiology , 33: 1006–1017.
   Google Scholar
• Ball, M. C. , Hodges, V. S. , and Laughlin, G. P. , 1991: Coldinduced photoinhibition limits regeneration of Snow Gum at tree-line. Functional Ecology , 5(5): 663–668.
   Google Scholar
• Biondi, E. , 2001: A 400-year tree-ring chronology from the tropical treeline of North America. AMBIO , 30(3): 162– 166.
   Google Scholar
• Blume, H. P. , Stahr, K. , and Leinweber, P. , 2011: Bodenkundliches Praktikum: Eine Einführung in pedologisches Arbeiten für Ökologen, insbesondere Land- und Forstwirte, und für Geowissenschaftler. 3. Aufl. Heidelberg: Spektrum Akademischer Verlag, 255 pp.
   Google Scholar
• Camarero, J. J. , and Gutiérrez, E. , 2004: Pace and pattern of recent treeline dynamics: response of ecotones to climatic variability in the Spanish Pyrenees. Climate Change , 63: 181–200.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Danby, R. K. , and Hik, D. S. , 2007: Responses of white spruce (Picea glauca) to experimental warming at a subarctic alpine treeline. Global Change Biology , 13(2): 437–451.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daniels, L. D. , and Veblen, T. T. , 2004: Spatiotemporal influences of climate on altitudinal treeline in northern Patagonia. Ecology , 85(5): 1284–1296.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doležal, J. , and Šrutek, M. , 2002: Altitudinal changes in composition and structure of mountain-temperate vegetation: a case study from the Western Carpathians. Plant Ecology , 158: 201–221.
   Google Scholar
• Dong, M. , Jiang, Y. , Zhang, W. , Yang, Y. , and Yang, H. , 2011: Effect of alpine treeline conditions on the response of the stem radial variation of Picea meyeri rebd. et wils to environmental factors. Polish Journal of Ecology , 59(4): 729– 739.
   Google Scholar
• Ferrar, P. J. , Cochrane, P. M. , and Slatyer, O. , 1988: Factors influencing germination and establishment of Eucalyptus pauciflora near the alpine tree line. Tree Physiology , 4: 27–43.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fox, J. , and Weisberg, S. , 2011: An R companion to applied regression. 2nd edition. Sage , http://socserv.socsci.mcmaster.ca/jfox/Books/Companion, accessed 6 January 2016.
   Google Scholar
• Germino, M. J. , Smith, W. K. , and Resor, A. C. , 2002: Conifer seedling distribution and survival in an alpine-treeline ecotone. Plant Ecology , 162: 157–168.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghimire, B. K. , and Lekhak, H. D. , 2007: Regeneration of Abies spectabilis (D. Don) Mirb. in subalpine forest of upper Manang, north-central Nepal. In Chaudhary, R. P. , Aase, T. H. , Vetaas, O , and Subedi, B. P. (eds.), Local Effects of Global Changes in the Himalayas: Manang, Nepal. Tribhuvan University, Nepal, and University of Bergen, Norway, 139–149.
   Google Scholar
• Gieger, T. , and Leuschner, C. , 2004: Altitudinal change in needle water relations of Pinus canariensis and possible evidence of a drought-induced alpine timberline on Mt. Teide, Tenerife. Flora—Morphology, Distribution, Functional Ecology of Plants , 199(2): 100–109.
   Google Scholar
• Gill, R. A. , Campbell, C. S. , and Karlinsey, S. M. , 2015: Soil moisture controls Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii) seedling carbon balance and survivorship at timberline in Utah, USA. Canadian Journal of Forest Research , 45(12): 1845–1852.
   Google Scholar
• González de Andrés, E. , Camarero, J. J. , and Bntgen, U. , 2015: Complex climate constraints of upper treeline formation in the Pyrenees. Trees , 29(3): 941–952.
   Google Scholar
• Green, F. H. W. , 1983: Soil temperature and the tree line: a note. Scottish Geographical Magazine , 99(1): 44–47.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hagedorn, F , Shiyatov, S. G. , Mazepa, V. S. , Devi, N. M. , Grigor'ev, A. A. , Bartysch, A. A. , Fomin, V.V. , Kapralov, D. S. , Terent'ev, M. , Bugman, H. , Rigling, A. , and Moiseev, P. A. , 2014: Treeline advance along the Ural mountain range— Driven by improved winter conditions? Global Change Biology , 20: 3530–3543.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harsch, M. A. , and Bader, M. Y. , 2011: Treeline form—a potential key to understanding treeline dynamics. Global Ecology and Biogeography , 20: 582–596.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hättenschwiler, S. , and Smith, W. K., 1999: Seedling occurrence in alpine treeline conifers: a case study from the central Rocky Mountains, USA. Acta Oecologica , 20(3): 219–224.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hessl, A. E. , and Baker, W. L. , 1997: Spruce and fir regeneration and climate in the forest-tundra ecotone of Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado, U.S.A. Arctic and Alpine Research , 29(2): 173–183.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoch, G. , and Körner, C. , 2005: Growth, demography and carbon relations of Polylepis trees at the world's highest treeline. Functional Ecology , 19(6): 941–951.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoch, G. , and Körner, C. , 2009: Growth and carbon relations of tree line forming conifers at constant vs. variable low temperatures. Journal of Ecology , 97(1): 57–66.
   Google Scholar
• Holtmeier, F. K. , 2005: Relocation of snow and its effects in the treeline ecotone—with special regard to the Rocky Mountains, the Alps and Northern Europe. Die Erde , 136(4): 343–373.
   Google Scholar
• Holtmeier, E. K. , 2009: Mountain Timberlines. Ecology, Patchiness, and Dynamics. 2nd edition. New York: Springer, 438 pp.
   Google Scholar
• Holtmeier, F. K. , and Broll, G. , 2005: Sensitivity and response of northern hemisphere altitudinal and polar treelines to environmental change at landscape and local scales. Global Ecology and Biogeography , 14(5): 395–410.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holtmeier, F. K. , and Broil, G. , 2007: Treeline advance—driving processes and adverse factors. Landscape Online , 1: 1–32.
   Google Scholar
• Holtmeier, F. K. , and Broll, G. , 2010: Altitudinal and polar treelines in the northern hemisphere—causes and response to climate change. Polarforschung , 79(3): 139– 153.
   Google Scholar
• IUSS Working Group WRB , 2006: World Reference Base for Soil Resources 2006. Rome: FAO, World Soil Resources Report No. 103, 133 pp.
   Google Scholar
• Jacoby, G. C. , and D'Arrigo, R. D. , 1995: Tree-ring width and density evidence of climatic and potential forest change in Alaska. Global Biogeochemical Cycles , 9(2): 227–234.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Köhler, L. , Gieger, T. , and Leuschner, C. , 2006: Altitudinal change in soil and foliar nutrient concentrations and in microclimate across the tree line on the subtropical island mountain Mt. Teide (Canary Islands). Flora— Morphology, Distribution, Functional Ecology of Plants , 201(3): 202–214.
   Google Scholar
• Körner, C. , 1998a: A re-assessement of high elevation treeline positions and their explanation. Oecologia , 115: 445–459.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Körner, C. , 1998b: Worldwide position of alpine treelines and their causes. In Beniston, M. , and Innes, J. L. (eds.). The Impacts of Climate Variability on Forests. Berlin-Heidelberg: Springer, pp. 221–229.
   Google Scholar
• Körner, C. , 2009: Mountain vegetation under environmental change. Alpine Space — Man and Environment , 7: 25–30.
   Google Scholar
• Körner, C. , 2012: Alpine Treelines. Functional Ecology of the Global High Elevation Tree Limits. Basel, Switzerland: Springer, 220 pp.
   Google Scholar
• Körner, C. , and Paulsen, J. , 2004: A world-wide study of high altitude treeline temperatures. Journal of Biogeography , 31: 713–732.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kullman, L. , 2007: Tree line population monitoring of Pinus sylvestris in the Swedish Scandes, 1973–2005: implications for tree line theory and climate change ecology. Journal of Ecology , 95(1): 41–52.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kupfer, J. A. , and Cairns, D. M. , 1996: The suitability of montane ecotones as indicators of global climatic change. Progress in Physical Geography , 20(3): 253–272.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lara, A. , Villalba, R. , Wolodarsky-Franke, A. , Aravena, J. C. , Luckman, B. H. , and Cuq, E. , 2005: Spatial and temporal variation in Nothofagus pumilio growth at tree line along its latitudinal range (35°40′—55°S) in the Chilean Andes. Journal of Biogeography , 32: 879–893.
   Google Scholar
• Larcher, W. , 1957: Frosttrocknis an der Waldgrenze und in der alpinen Zwergstrauchheide. Veröffentlichungen Museum Ferdinandeum Innsbruck , 37: 49–81.
   Google Scholar
• Larcher, W. , 1963: Zur spätwinterlichen Erschwerung der Wasserbilanz von Holzpflanzen an der Waldgrenze. Berichte des Naturwissenschaftlich-medizinischen Vereins in Innsbruck , 53: 125–137.
   Google Scholar
• Leuschner, C. , 1996: Timberline and alpine vegetation on the tropical and warm-temperate oceanic islands of the world: elevation, structure and floris tics. Vegetatio , 123: 193–206.
   Google Scholar
• Leuschner, C. , and Schulte, M. , 1991: Microclimatic investigations in the tropical alpine scrub of Maui, Hawaii: evidence for a drought-induced alpine timberline. Pacific Science , 45: 152–168.
   Google Scholar
• Liang, E. , Dawadi, B. , Pederson, N. , and Eckstein, D. , 2014: Is the growth of birch at the upper timberline in the Himalayas limited by moisture or by temperature? Ecology , 95(9): 2453–2465.
   Google Scholar
• Liu, X. , and Luo, T. , 2011: Spatiotemporal variability of soil temperature and moisture across two contrasting timberline ecotones in the Sergyemla Mountains, Southeast Tibet. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research , 43(2): 229–238.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lloyd, A. H. , and Graumlich, L. J. , 1997: Holocene dynamics of treeline forests in the Sierra Nevada. Ecology , 78(4): 1199–1210.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loomis, P. F. , Ruess, R. W. , Sveinbjörnsson, B. , and Kielland, K. , 2006: Nitrogen cycling at treeline: latitudinal and elevational patterns across a boreal landscape. Ecoscience , 13(4): 544–556.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Macek, P. , Klimeš, L. , Adamec, L. , Doležal, J. , Chlumská, Z. , and de Bello, F. , 2012: Plant nutrient content does not simply increase with elevation under the extreme environmental conditions of Ladakh, NW Himalaya. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research , 44(1): 62–66.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malanson, G. P. , Resler, L. M. , Bader, M.Y. , Holtmeier, F. K. , Butler, D. R. , Weiss, D.J. , Daniels, L.D , and Eagre, D. B. , 2011: Mountain treelines: a roadmap for research orientation. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research , 43(2): 167–177.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mayr, S. , Hacke, U. , Schmid, F. , Schwienbacher, F. , and Gruber, A. , 2006: Frost drought in conifers at the alpine timberline: xylem dysfunction and adaptations. Ecology , 87(12): 3175— 31–85.
   Google Scholar
• McNown, R.W. , and Sullivan, P. F. , 2013: Low photosynthesis of treeline white spruce is associated with limited soil nitrogen availability in the Western Brooks Range, Alaska. Functional Ecology , 27(3): 672–683.
   Google Scholar
• Morales, M. S. , Villalba, R. , Grau, H. R. , and Paolini, L. , 2004: Rainfall-controlled tree growth in high-elevation subtropical treelines. Ecology , 85(11): 3080–3089.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moyes, A. B. , Germino, M. J. , and Kueppers, L. M. , 2015: Moisture rivals temperature in limiting photosynthesis by trees establishing beyond their cold-edge range limit under ambient and warmed conditions. New Phytologist , 207(4): 1005–1014.
   Google Scholar
• Müller, M. , Schickhoff, U. , Scholten, T. , Drollinger, S. , Böhner, J. , and Chaudhary, R. P. , 2016: How do soil properties affect alpine treelines? General principles in a global perspective and novel findings from Rolwaling Himal, Nepal. Progress in Physical Geography , 40(1): 135–160.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Öberg, L. , and Kuilman, L. , 2012: Contrasting short-term performance of mountain birch (Betula pubescens ssp. czerepanovii) treeline along a latitudinal continentalitymaritimity gradient in the southern Swedish Scandes. FENNIA , 190(1): 19–40.
   Google Scholar
• Oberhuber, W. , 2004: Influence of climate on radial growth of Pinus ceinbra within the alpine timberline ecotone. Tree Physiology , 24: 291–301.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oksanen, J. , Blanchet, F. G. , Kindt, R. , Legendre, P. , Minchin, P. R. , O'Hara, B. , Simpson,. G. L. , Solymos, P. , Stevens, M. H. H. , and Wagner, H. , 2015: vegan: Community Ecology Package. R. package version 2.2–1. http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=vegan, accessed 6 January 2016.
   Google Scholar
• Paulsen, J. , and Körner, C. , 2014: A climate-based model to predict potential treeline position around the globe. Alpine Botany , 124(1): 1–12.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peters, T. , Braeuning, A. , Muenchow, J. , and Richter, M. , 2014: An ecological paradox: high species diversity and low position of the upper forest line in the Andean Depression. Ecology and Evolution , 4(11): 2134–2145.
   Google Scholar
• Pohlert, T. , 2014: Calculate pairwise multiple comparisons of mean rank sums (PMCMR). R package. http://www.project.org/web/packages/PMCMR/PMCMR.pdf, accessed 6 January 2016.
   Google Scholar
• R Development Core Team , 2014: R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. http://www.R-project.org/, accessed 6 January 2016.
   Google Scholar
• Richardson, A. D. , and Friedland, A. J. , 2009: A review of the theories to explain arctic and alpine treelines around the world. Journal of Sustainable Forestry , 28(1–2): 218–242.
   Google Scholar
• Schickhoff, U. , Bobrowski, M. , Böhner, J. , Bürzle, B. , Chaudhary, R. P. , Gerlitz, L. , Heyken, H. , Lange, J. , Müller, M. , Scholten, T. , Schwab, N. , and Wedegärtner, R. , 2015: Do Himalayan treelines respond to recent climate change? An evaluation of sensitivity indicators. Earth System Dynamics , 6: 245–265.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwab, N. , Schickhoff, U. , Müller, M. , Gerlitz, L. , Bürzle, B. , Böhner, J. , Chaudhary, R. P. , and Schölten, T. , 2016: Treeline responsiveness to climate warming: insights from a krummholz treeline in Rolwaling Himal, Nepal. In Singh, R. B. , Schickhoff, U. , and Mal, S. (eds.). Climate Change, Glacier Response, and Vegetation Dynamics in the Himalaya: Contributions Towards Future Earth Initiatives. Basel, Switzerland: Springer, 307–346.
   Google Scholar
• Shi, P. , Körner, C. , Hoch, G. , 2008: A test of the growthlimitation theory for alpine tree line formation in evergreen and deciduous taxa of the eastern Himalayas. Functional Ecology , 22(2): 213–220.
   Google Scholar
• Shrestha, B. B. , 2007: Regeneration of treeline birch (Betula utilis D. Don) forest in a trans-himalayan dry valley in Central Nepal. Mountain Research and Development , 27(3): 259–267.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slatyer, R. O. , 1976: Water deficits in timberline trees in the Snowy Mountains of South-Eastern Australia. Oecologia , 24: 357–366.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, W. K. , Germino, M. J. , Johnson, D. M. , and Reinhardt, K. , 2009: The altitude of alpine treeline: a bellwether of climate change effects. Botanical Review , 75: 163–190.
   Google Scholar
• Soetaert, K. , 2014: shape: Functions for plotting graphical shapes, colors. R package version 1.4.2. http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=shape, accessed 6 January 2016.
   Google Scholar
• Stöhr, D. , 2007: Sods—heterogeneous at a microscale. In Wieser, G. , and Tausz, M. (eds.). Trees at Their Upper Limit: Treelife Limitation at the Alpine Timberline. Dordrecht: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Troll, C. , 1961: Klima und Pflanzenkleid der Erde in dreidimensionaler Sicht. Die Naturwissenschaften , 48(9): 332–348.
   Google Scholar
• Van Laar, A. , and Akça, A. , 2007: Forest Mensuration. Dordrecht: Springer, 385 pp.
   Google Scholar
• Walter, H. , and Medina, E. , 1969: Die Bodentemperatur als ausschlaggebender Faktor für die Gliederung der alpinen und subalpinen Stufen in den Anden Venezuelas. Berichte der Deutschen Botanischen Gesellschaft , 82: 275–281.
   Google Scholar
• Wardle, P. , 1968: Engelmann Spruce (Picea Engelmannii Engel.) at its upper limits on the Front Range, Colorado. Ecology Utters , 49(3): 483–495.
   Google Scholar
• Weisberg, P. J. , and Baker, W. L. , 1995: Spatial variation in tree regeneration in the forest-tundra ecotone. Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado. Canadian Journal of Forest Research , 25(8): 1326–1339.
   Google Scholar
• Wieser, G. , and Tausz, M. , 2007: Trees at Their Upper Limit. Treelife Limitation at the Alpine Timberline. Dordrecht: Springer, 232 pp.
   Google Scholar
• Zeileis, A. , and Grothendieck, G. , 2005: zoo: S3 Infrastructure for Regular and Irregular Time Series. Journal of Statistical Software , 14(6): 1–27.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar