2,678
Views
6
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Gender Dysphoria: A Review Investigating the Relationship Between Genetic Influences and Brain Development

ORCID Icon & ORCID Icon
Pages 89-99 | Published online: 05 Aug 2020

References

  • American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 5th ed. 2013.
  • World Health Organization. Gender and human rights. Published 2018. Available from: https://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/topics/gender_rights/sexual_health/en/. Accessed July 9, 2020.
  • World Health Organization. Gender. Published 2018. Available from: http://www.who.int/gender-equity-rights/understanding/gender-definition/en. Accessed July 9, 2020.
  • American Psychiatric Association. Sexual orientation and homosexuality. Published 2008. Available from: https://www.apa.org/topics/lgbt/orientation. Accessed July 9, 2020.
  • Luyckx K, Schwartz SJ, Goossens L, Beyers W, Missotten L. Processes of personal identity formation and evaluation. In: Handbook of Identity Theory and Research. 2011:77–98. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-7988-9_4
  • Williams A. Risk factors for suicide in the transgender community. Eur Psychiatry. 2017;41(S1):s894. doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2017.01.1820
  • American Psychological Association. Defining transgender terms. September 2018.
  • Goodman N. The descent of man and selection in relation to sex. J Anat Physiol. 1871;5(Pt2):363–372.
  • Utiger RD. Sexual differentiation. Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. Published 2018. Available from: https://www.britannica.com/science/sexual-differentiation. Accessed July 9, 2020.
  • Hannema SE, Print CG, Charnock-Jones DS, Coleman N, Hughes IA. Changes in gene expression during Wolffian duct development. Horm Res. 2006;65(4):200–209. doi:10.1159/000092408
  • Luo X, Ikeda Y, Parker KL. A cell-specific nuclear receptor is essential for adrenal and gonadal development and sexual differentiation. Cell. 1994;77(4):481–490. doi:10.1016/0092-8674(94)90211-9
  • Sekido R, Lovell-Badge R. Sex determination involves synergistic action of SRY and SF1 on a specific Sox9 enhancer. Nature. 2008;453(7197):930–934. doi:10.1038/nature06944
  • Morel Y, Roucher F, Mallet D, Plotton I. Genetic of gonadal determination. Ann Endocrinol. 2014;75(2):32–39. doi:10.1016/j.ando.2014.04.005
  • Schoenwolf GC, Bleyl SB, Brauer PR, Francis-West PH. Larsen’s Human Embryology. 2015. doi:10.1016/B978-0-443-06811-9.10011-9
  • Ohnesorg T, Vilain E, Sinclair AH. The genetics of disorders of sex development in humans. Sex Dev. 2014;8(5):262–272. doi:10.1159/000357956
  • Parma P, Radi O, Vidal V, et al. R-spondin1 is essential in sex determination, skin differentiation and malignancy. Nat Genet. 2006;38(11):1304–1309. doi:10.1038/ng1907
  • Luders E, Toga AW. Sex differences in brain anatomy. In: Progress in Brain Research. 2010:2–12. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-53630-3.00001-4
  • De Bellis MD. Sex differences in brain maturation during childhood and adolescence. Cereb Cortex. 2001;11(6):552–557. doi:10.1093/cercor/11.6.552
  • Ritchie SJ, Cox SR, Shen X, et al. Sex differences in the adult human brain: evidence from 5216 UK biobank participants. Cereb Cortex. 2018;28(8):2959–2975. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhy109
  • Halpern DF. Sex Differences in Cognitive Abilities. 4th ed. Psychology press; 2013. doi:10.4324/9780203816530
  • Ruigrok ANV, Salimi-Khorshidi G, Lai MC, et al. A meta-analysis of sex differences in human brain structure. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2014;39:34–50. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.12.004
  • Wachs TD, Georgieff M, Cusick S, Mcewen BS. Issues in the timing of integrated early interventions: contributions from nutrition, neuroscience, and psychological research. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2014;1308(1):89–106. doi:10.1111/nyas.12314
  • Savic I, Berglund H, Gulyas B, Roland P. Smelling of odorous sex hormone-like compounds causes sex-differentiated hypothalamic activations in humans. Neuron. 2001;31(4):661–668. doi:10.1016/S0896-6273(01)00390-7
  • Burke SM, Veltman DJ, Gerber J, Hummel T, Bakker J. Heterosexual men and women both show a hypothalamic response to the chemo-signal androstadienone. PLoS One. 2012;7(7):e40993. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0040993
  • Berglund H, Lindström P, Dhejne-Helmy C, Savic I. Male-to-female transsexuals show sex-atypical hypothalamus activation when smelling odorous steroids. Cereb Cortex. 2008;18(8):1900–1908. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhm216
  • Burke SM, Cohen-Kettenis PT, Veltman DJ, Klink DT, Bakker J. Hypothalamic response to the chemo-signal androstadienone in gender dysphoric children and adolescents. Front Endocrinol. 2014;5:60. doi:10.3389/fendo.2014.00060
  • Schneider MA, Spritzer PM, Minuzzi L, et al. Effects of estradiol therapy on resting-state functional connectivity of transgender women after gender-affirming related gonadectomy. Front Neurosci. 2019;13:817. doi:10.3389/fnins.2019.00817
  • Simon L, Kozák LR, Simon V, et al. Regional grey matter structure differences between transsexuals and healthy controls - A voxel based morphometry study. PLoS One. 2013;8(12):e83947. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0083947
  • Hoekzema E, Schagen SEE, Kreukels BPC, et al. Regional volumes and spatial volumetric distribution of gray matter in the gender dysphoric brain. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2015;55:59–71. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2015.01.016
  • Bailey JM, Dunne MP, Martin NG. Genetic and environmental influences on sexual orientation and its correlates in an Australian Twin sample. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2000;78(3):524–536. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.78.3.524
  • Coolidge FL, Thede LL, Young SE. The heritability of gender identity disorder in a child and adolescent twin sample. Behav Genet. 2002;32(4):251–257. doi:10.1023/A:1019724712983
  • Knafo A, Iervolino AC, Plomin R. Masculine girls and feminine boys: genetic and environmental contributions to atypical gender development in early childhood. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2005;88(2):400–412. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.88.2.400
  • Burri A, Cherkas L, Spector T, Rahman Q. Genetic and environmental influences on female sexual orientation, childhood gender typicality and adult gender identity. PLoS One. 2011;6(7):e21982. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0021982
  • Fernández R, Cortés-Cortés J, Esteva I, et al. The CYP17 MspA1 polymorphism and the gender dysphoria. J Sex Med. 2015;12(6):1329–1333. doi:10.1111/jsm.12895
  • Ozdemir O, Sari ME, Akmut E, Selimova V, Unal T, Atalay CR. Complete androgen insensitivity syndrome with a large gonadal serous papillary cystadenofibroma. J Hum Reprod Sci. 2014;7(2):148–150. doi:10.4103/0974-1208.138875
  • Hughes IA, Davies JD, Bunch TI, Pasterski V, Mastroyannopoulou K, Macdougall J. Androgen insensitivity syndrome. Lancet. 2012;380(9851):1419–1428. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60071-3
  • D’Andrea S, Pallotti F, Senofonte G, et al. Polymorphic cytosine-adenine-guanine repeat length of androgen receptor gene and gender incongruence in trans women: a systematic review and meta-analysis of case-control studies. J Sex Med. 2020;17(3):543–550. doi:10.1016/j.jsxm.2019.12.010
  • Almeida M, Laurent MR, Dubois V, et al. Estrogens and androgens in skeletal physiology and pathophysiology. Physiol Rev. 2017;97(1):135–187. doi:10.1152/physrev.00033.2015
  • King TFJ, Wat WZM, Creighton SM, Conway GS. Bone mineral density in complete androgen insensitivity syndrome and the timing of gonadectomy. Clin Endocrinol. 2017;87(2):136–140. doi:10.1111/cen.13368
  • Fernández R, Guillamon A, Cortés-Cortés J, et al. Molecular basis of gender dysphoria: androgen and estrogen receptor interaction. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2018;98:161–167. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.07.032
  • Mouriquand PDE, Gorduza DB, Gay CL, et al. Surgery in disorders of sex development (DSD) with a gender issue: if (why), when, and how? J Pediatr Urol. 2016;12:139–149. doi:10.1016/j.jpurol.2016.04.001
  • Lee PA, Nordenström A, Houk CP, et al. Global disorders of sex development update since 2006: perceptions, approach and care. Horm Res Paediatr. 2016;85(3):158–180. doi:10.1159/000442975
  • General Medical Council. Making decisions. Published 2018. Available from: https://www.gmc-uk.org/ethical-guidance/ethical-guidance-for-doctors/0-18-years/making-decisions. Accessed July 9, 2020.
  • Beery AK, Zucker I. Sex bias in neuroscience and biomedical research. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2011;35(3):565–572. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.07.002
  • Kaczkurkin AN, Raznahan A, Satterthwaite TD. Sex differences in the developing brain: insights from multimodal neuroimaging. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2019;44(1):71–85. doi:10.1038/s41386-018-0111-z
  • Rigby N, Kulathinal RJ. Genetic architecture of sexual dimorphism in humans. J Cell Physiol. 2015;230(10):2304–2310. doi:10.1002/jcp.24979
  • Mazure CM, Swendsen J. Sex differences in Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias. Lancet Neurol. 2016;15(5):451–452. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(16)00067-3
  • Sundermann EE, Tran M, Maki PM, Bondi MW. Sex differences in the association between apolipoprotein E ε4 allele and Alzheimer’s disease markers. Alzheimer’s Dement Diagnosis, Assess Dis Monit. 2018. 10:438–447. doi:10.1016/j.dadm.2018.06.004