Sarcopenia and COVID-19 Outcomes

References

• Tarik Jasarevic CL, Chaib F. Statement on the second meeting of the International Health Regulations (2005) Emergency Committee regarding the outbreak of novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV); 2020. Available from: https://www.who.int/news/item/30-01-2020-statement-on-The-second-meeting-of-The-international-health-regulations-(2005)-emergency-committee-regarding-The-outbreak-of-novel-coronavirus-(2019-ncov). Accessed March 3, 2023.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. WHO coronavirus (COVID-19) dashboard; 2022. Available from: https://covid19.who.int/. Accessed March 3, 2023.
   Google Scholar
• Else H. The pandemic’s true health cost: how much of our lives has COVID stolen? Nature. 2022;605(7910):410–413. doi:10.1038/d41586-022-01341-7
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kolahchi Z, De Domenico M, Uddin LQ, et al. COVID-19 and its global economic impact. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2021;1318:825–837.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ashton J. The COVID-19 pandemic: the third wave? J R Soc Med. 2021;114(7):367–368. doi:10.1177/01410768211030835
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cascella M, Rajnik M, Aleem A, Dulebohn SC, Di Napoli R. Features, evaluation, and treatment of coronavirus (COVID-19). In: StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls; 2022.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. Report of the WHO-china joint mission on coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19); 2020. Available from: https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/who-china-joint-mission-on-covid-19-final-report.pdf. Accessed March 3, 2023.
   Google Scholar
• Zhou F, Yu T, Du R, et al. Clinical course and risk factors for mortality of adult inpatients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet. 2020;395(10229):1054–1062. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30566-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumar A, Arora A, Sharma P, et al. Is diabetes mellitus associated with mortality and severity of COVID-19? A meta-analysis. Diabetes Metab Syndr. 2020;14(4):535–545. doi:10.1016/j.dsx.2020.04.044
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simonnet A, Chetboun M, Poissy J, et al. High prevalence of obesity in severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) requiring invasive mechanical ventilation. Obesity. 2020;28(7):1195–1199. doi:10.1002/oby.22831
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zheng Z, Peng F, Xu B, et al. Risk factors of critical & mortal COVID-19 cases: a systematic literature review and meta-analysis. J Infect. 2020;81(2):e16–e25. doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2020.04.021
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cruz-Jentoft AJ, Bahat G, Bauer J, et al. Sarcopenia: revised European consensus on definition and diagnosis. Age Ageing. 2019;48(1):16–31. doi:10.1093/ageing/afy169
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cao L, Morley JE. Sarcopenia is recognized as an independent condition by an international classification of disease, tenth revision, clinical modification (ICD-10-CM) code. J Am Med Dir Assoc. 2016;17(8):675–677. doi:10.1016/j.jamda.2016.06.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petermann-Rocha F, Balntzi V, Gray SR, et al. Global prevalence of sarcopenia and severe sarcopenia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle. 2022;13(1):86–99. doi:10.1002/jcsm.12783
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shen Y, Chen J, Chen X, Hou L, Lin X, Yang M. Prevalence and associated factors of sarcopenia in nursing home residents: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Med Dir Assoc. 2019;20(1):5–13. doi:10.1016/j.jamda.2018.09.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cruz-Jentoft AJ, Sayer AA. Sarcopenia. Lancet. 2019;393(10191):2636–2646. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(19)31138-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cruz-Jentoft AJ, Baeyens JP, Bauer JM, et al. Sarcopenia: European consensus on definition and diagnosis: report of the European Working Group on sarcopenia in older people. Age Ageing. 2010;39(4):412–423. doi:10.1093/ageing/afq034
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sabatino A, Cuppari L, Stenvinkel P, Lindholm B, Avesani CM. Sarcopenia in chronic kidney disease: what have we learned so far? J Nephrol. 2021;34(4):1347–1372. doi:10.1007/s40620-020-00840-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sepúlveda-Loyola W, Osadnik C, Phu S, Morita AA, Duque G, Probst VS. Diagnosis, prevalence, and clinical impact of sarcopenia in COPD: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle. 2020;11(5):1164–1176. doi:10.1002/jcsm.12600
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shachar SS, Williams GR, Muss HB, Nishijima TF. Prognostic value of sarcopenia in adults with solid tumours: a meta-analysis and systematic review. Eur J Cancer. 2016;57:58–67. doi:10.1016/j.ejca.2015.12.030
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Altuna-Venegas S, Aliaga-Vega R, Maguiña JL, Parodi JF, Runzer-Colmenares FM. Risk of community-acquired pneumonia in older adults with sarcopenia of a hospital from Callao, Peru 2010–2015. Arch Gerontol Geriatr. 2019;82:100–105. doi:10.1016/j.archger.2019.01.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maeda K, Akagi J. Muscle mass loss is a potential predictor of 90-day mortality in older adults with Aspiration pneumonia. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2017;65(1):e18–e22. doi:10.1111/jgs.14543
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhurchandi S, Kumar S, Agrawal S, et al. Correlation of sarcopenia with modified frailty index as a predictor of outcome in critically Ill elderly patients: a cross-sectional study. Cureus. 2021;13(10):e19065. doi:10.7759/cureus.19065
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weijs PJ, Looijaard WG, Dekker IM, et al. Low skeletal muscle area is a risk factor for mortality in mechanically ventilated critically ill patients. Critical Care. 2014;18(2):R12. doi:10.1186/cc13189
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kou HW, Yeh CH, Tsai HI, et al. Sarcopenia is an effective predictor of difficult-to-wean and mortality among critically ill surgical patients. PLoS One. 2019;14(8):e0220699. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0220699
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malmstrom TK, Morley JE. SARC-F: a simple questionnaire to rapidly diagnose sarcopenia. J Am Med Dir Assoc. 2013;14(8):531–532. doi:10.1016/j.jamda.2013.05.018
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ida S, Kaneko R, Murata K. SARC-F for screening of sarcopenia among older adults: a meta-analysis of screening test accuracy. J Am Med Dir Assoc. 2018;19(8):685–689. doi:10.1016/j.jamda.2018.04.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim S, Kim M, Won CW. Validation of the Korean Version of the SARC-F questionnaire to assess sarcopenia: Korean Frailty and aging cohort study. J Am Med Dir Assoc. 2018;19(1):40–45.e41. doi:10.1016/j.jamda.2017.07.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riesgo H, Castro A, Del Amo S, et al. Prevalence of risk of malnutrition and risk of sarcopenia in a reference hospital for COVID-19: relationship with mortality. Ann Nutr Metab. 2021;77(6):324–329. doi:10.1159/000519485
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ma Y, He M, Hou LS, et al. The role of SARC-F scale in predicting progression risk of COVID-19 in elderly patients: a prospective cohort study in Wuhan. BMC Geriatr. 2021;21(1):355. doi:10.1186/s12877-021-02310-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts HC, Denison HJ, Martin HJ, et al. A review of the measurement of grip strength in clinical and epidemiological studies: towards a standardised approach. Age Ageing. 2011;40(4):423–429. doi:10.1093/ageing/afr051
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ekiz T, Kara M, Özçakar L. Measuring grip strength in COVID-19: a simple way to predict overall frailty/impairment. Heart Lung. 2020;49(6):853–854. doi:10.1016/j.hrtlng.2020.05.011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kara Ö, Kara M, Akın ME, Özçakar L. Grip strength as a predictor of disease severity in hospitalized COVID-19 patients. Heart Lung. 2021;50(6):743–747. doi:10.1016/j.hrtlng.2021.06.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tuzun S, Keles A, Okutan D, Yildiran T, Palamar D. Assessment of musculoskeletal pain, fatigue and grip strength in hospitalized patients with COVID-19. Eur J Phys Rehabil Med. 2021;57(4):653–662. doi:10.23736/S1973-9087.20.06563-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gil S, Jacob Filho W, Shinjo SK, et al. Muscle strength and muscle mass as predictors of hospital length of stay in patients with moderate to severe COVID-19: a prospective observational study. J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle. 2021;12(6):1871–1878. doi:10.1002/jcsm.12789
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gobbi M, Bezzoli E, Ismelli F, et al. Skeletal muscle mass, sarcopenia and rehabilitation outcomes in post-acute COVID-19 patients. J Clin Med. 2021;10:23. doi:10.3390/jcm10235623
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gonzalez MC, Barbosa-Silva TG, Heymsfield SB. Bioelectrical impedance analysis in the assessment of sarcopenia. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2018;21(5):366–374. doi:10.1097/MCO.0000000000000496
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sipers W, Dorge J, Schols J, Verdijk LB, van Loon LJC. Multifrequency bioelectrical impedance analysis may represent a reproducible and practical tool to assess skeletal muscle mass in euvolemic acutely ill hospitalized geriatric patients. Eur Geriatr Med. 2020;11(1):155–162. doi:10.1007/s41999-019-00253-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim D, Sun JS, Lee YH, Lee JH, Hong J, Lee JM. Comparative assessment of skeletal muscle mass using computerized tomography and bioelectrical impedance analysis in critically ill patients. Clin Nutr. 2019;38(6):2747–2755. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2018.12.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGovern J, Dolan R, Richards C, Laird BJ, McMillan DC, Maguire D. Relation between body composition, systemic inflammatory response, and clinical outcomes in patients admitted to an urban teaching hospital with COVID-19. J Nutr. 2021;151(8):2236–2244. doi:10.1093/jn/nxab142
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Osuna-Padilla IA, Rodríguez-Moguel NC, Rodríguez-Llamazares S, et al. Low muscle mass in COVID-19 critically-ill patients: prognostic significance and surrogate markers for assessment. Clin Nutr. 2022;41(12):2910.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Damanti S, Cristel G, Ramirez GA, et al. Influence of reduced muscle mass and quality on ventilator weaning and complications during intensive care unit stay in COVID-19 patients. Clin Nutr. 2021;41:2965–2972. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2021.08.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nemec U, Heidinger B, Sokas C, Chu L, Eisenberg RL. Diagnosing sarcopenia on thoracic computed tomography: quantitative assessment of skeletal muscle mass in patients undergoing transcatheter aortic valve replacement. Acad Radiol. 2017;24(9):1154–1161. doi:10.1016/j.acra.2017.02.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Derstine BA, Holcombe SA, Ross BE, Wang NC, Su GL, Wang SC. Skeletal muscle cutoff values for sarcopenia diagnosis using T10 to L5 measurements in a healthy US population. Sci Rep. 2018;8(1):11369. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-29825-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim JW, Yoon JS, Kim EJ, et al. Prognostic implication of baseline sarcopenia for length of hospital stay and survival in patients with coronavirus disease 2019. J Gerontol a Biol Sci Med Sci. 2021;76(8):e110–e116. doi:10.1093/gerona/glab085
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schiaffino S, Albano D, Cozzi A, et al. CT-derived chest muscle metrics for outcome prediction in patients with COVID-19. Radiology. 2021;300(2):E328–e336. doi:10.1148/radiol.2021204141
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giraudo C, Librizzi G, Fichera G, et al. Reduced muscle mass as predictor of intensive care unit hospitalization in COVID-19 patients. PLoS One. 2021;16(6):e0253433. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0253433
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moctezuma-Velázquez P, Miranda-Zazueta G, Ortiz-Brizuela E, et al. Low thoracic skeletal muscle area is not associated with negative outcomes in patients with COVID-19. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2021;100(5):413–418. doi:10.1097/PHM.0000000000001716
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ufuk F, Demirci M, Sagtas E, Akbudak IH, Ugurlu E, Sari T. The prognostic value of pneumonia severity score and pectoralis muscle Area on chest CT in adult COVID-19 patients. Eur J Radiol. 2020;131:109271. doi:10.1016/j.ejrad.2020.109271
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lundbom J. Adipose tissue and liver. J Appl Physiol. 2018;124(1):162–167. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00399.2017
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Viddeleer AR, Raaphorst J, Min M, et al. Intramuscular adipose tissue at level Th12 is associated with survival in COVID-19. J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle. 2021;12(3):823–827. doi:10.1002/jcsm.12696
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang Y, Ding L, Zou X, et al. Visceral adiposity and high intramuscular fat deposition independently predict critical illness in patients with SARS-CoV-2. Obesity. 2020;28(11):2040–2048. doi:10.1002/oby.22971
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feng Z, Zhao H, Kang W, et al. Association of paraspinal muscle measurements on chest computed tomography with clinical outcomes in patients with severe coronavirus disease 2019. J Gerontol a Biol Sci Med Sci. 2021;76(3):e78–e84. doi:10.1093/gerona/glaa317
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yi X, Liu H, Zhu L, et al. Myosteatosis predicting risk of transition to severe COVID-19 infection. Clin Nutr. 2021;41(12):3007–3015. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2021.05.031
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kremer WM, Labenz C, Kuchen R, et al. Sonographic assessment of low muscle quantity identifies mortality risk during COVID-19: a prospective single-centre study. J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle. 2022;13(1):169–179. doi:10.1002/jcsm.12862
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franceschi C, Garagnani P, Parini P, Giuliani C, Santoro A. Inflammaging: a new immune-metabolic viewpoint for age-related diseases. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2018;14(10):576–590. doi:10.1038/s41574-018-0059-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dalle S, Rossmeislova L, Koppo K. The role of inflammation in age-related sarcopenia. Front Physiol. 2017;8:1045. doi:10.3389/fphys.2017.01045
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bian AL, Hu HY, Rong YD, Wang J, Wang JX, Zhou XZ. A study on relationship between elderly sarcopenia and inflammatory factors IL-6 and TNF-α. Eur J Med Res. 2017;22(1):25. doi:10.1186/s40001-017-0266-9
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Li CW, Yu K, Shyh-Chang N, et al. Circulating factors associated with sarcopenia during ageing and after intensive lifestyle intervention. J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle. 2019;10(3):586–600. doi:10.1002/jcsm.12417
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alemán H, Esparza J, Ramirez FA, Astiazaran H, Payette H. Longitudinal evidence on the association between interleukin-6 and C-reactive protein with the loss of total appendicular skeletal muscle in free-living older men and women. Age Ageing. 2011;40(4):469–475. doi:10.1093/ageing/afr040
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tuttle CSL, Thang LAN, Maier AB. Markers of inflammation and their association with muscle strength and mass: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ageing Res Rev. 2020;64:101185. doi:10.1016/j.arr.2020.101185
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang T. Searching for the link between inflammaging and sarcopenia. Ageing Res Rev. 2022;77:101611. doi:10.1016/j.arr.2022.101611
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ye Q, Wang B, Mao J. The pathogenesis and treatment of the `Cytokine Storm’ in COVID-19. J Infect. 2020;80(6):607–613. doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2020.03.037
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jose RJ, Manuel A. COVID-19 cytokine storm: the interplay between inflammation and coagulation. Lancet Respir Med. 2020;8(6):e46–e47. doi:10.1016/S2213-2600(20)30216-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet. 2020;395(10223):497–506. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen G, Wu D, Guo W, et al. Clinical and immunological features of severe and moderate coronavirus disease 2019. J Clin Invest. 2020;130(5):2620–2629. doi:10.1172/JCI137244
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu K, Wei Y, Giunta S, Zhou M, Xia S. Do inflammaging and coagul-aging play a role as conditions contributing to the co-occurrence of the severe hyper-inflammatory state and deadly coagulopathy during COVID-19 in older people? Exp Gerontol. 2021;151:111423. doi:10.1016/j.exger.2021.111423
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giudice J, Taylor JM. Muscle as a paracrine and endocrine organ. Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2017;34:49–55. doi:10.1016/j.coph.2017.05.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pedersen BK, Febbraio MA. Muscles, exercise and obesity: skeletal muscle as a secretory organ. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2012;8(8):457–465. doi:10.1038/nrendo.2012.49
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelke C, Dziewas R, Minnerup J, Meuth SG, Ruck T. Skeletal muscle as potential central link between sarcopenia and immune senescence. EBioMedicine. 2019;49:381–388. doi:10.1016/j.ebiom.2019.10.034
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nadeau L, Aguer C. Interleukin-15 as a myokine: mechanistic insight into its effect on skeletal muscle metabolism. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2019;44(3):229–238. doi:10.1139/apnm-2018-0022
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quinn LS, Anderson BG, Strait-Bodey L, Wolden-Hanson T. Serum and muscle interleukin-15 levels decrease in aging mice: correlation with declines in soluble interleukin-15 receptor alpha expression. Exp Gerontol. 2010;45(2):106–112. doi:10.1016/j.exger.2009.10.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pistilli EE, Quinn LS. From anabolic to oxidative: reconsidering the roles of IL-15 and IL-15Rα in skeletal muscle. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 2013;41(2):100–106. doi:10.1097/JES.0b013e318275d230
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Leary MF, Wallace GR, Bennett AJ, Tsintzas K, Jones SW. IL-15 promotes human myogenesis and mitigates the detrimental effects of TNFα on myotube development. Sci Rep. 2017;7(1):12997. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-13479-w
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Krolopp JE, Thornton SM, Abbott MJ. IL-15 activates the Jak3/STAT3 signaling pathway to mediate glucose uptake in skeletal muscle cells. Front Physiol. 2016;7:626. doi:10.3389/fphys.2016.00626
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nadeau L, Patten DA, Caron A, et al. IL-15 improves skeletal muscle oxidative metabolism and glucose uptake in association with increased respiratory chain supercomplex formation and AMPK pathway activation. Biochimica Et Biophysica Acta General Subjects. 2019;1863(2):395–407. doi:10.1016/j.bbagen.2018.10.021
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Almendro V, Busquets S, Ametller E, et al. Effects of interleukin-15 on lipid oxidation: disposal of an oral [(14)C]-triolein load. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2006;1761(1):37–42. doi:10.1016/j.bbalip.2005.12.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thornton SM, Krolopp JE, Abbott MJ. IL-15 mediates mitochondrial activity through a PPARδ-dependent-PPARα-independent mechanism in skeletal muscle cells. PPAR Res. 2016;2016:5465804. doi:10.1155/2016/5465804
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yalcin A, Silay K, Balik AR, Avcioğlu G, Aydin AS. The relationship between plasma interleukin-15 levels and sarcopenia in outpatient older people. Aging Clin Exp Res. 2018;30(7):783–790. doi:10.1007/s40520-017-0848-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verbist KC, Klonowski KD. Functions of IL-15 in anti-viral immunity: multiplicity and variety. Cytokine. 2012;59(3):467–478. doi:10.1016/j.cyto.2012.05.020
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kennedy MK, Glaccum M, Brown SN, et al. Reversible defects in natural killer and memory CD8 T cell lineages in interleukin 15-deficient mice. J Exp Med. 2000;191(5):771–780. doi:10.1084/jem.191.5.771
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greising SM, Mantilla CB, Gorman BA, Ermilov LG, Sieck GC. Diaphragm muscle sarcopenia in aging mice. Exp Gerontol. 2013;48(9):881–887. doi:10.1016/j.exger.2013.06.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greising SM, Medina-Martínez JS, Vasdev AK, Sieck GC, Mantilla CB. Analysis of muscle fiber clustering in the diaphragm muscle of sarcopenic mice. Muscle Nerve. 2015;52(1):76–82. doi:10.1002/mus.24641
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khurram OU, Fogarty MJ, Sarrafian TL, Bhatt A, Mantilla CB, Sieck GC. Impact of aging on diaphragm muscle function in male and female Fischer 344 rats. Physiol Rep. 2018;6(13):e13786. doi:10.14814/phy2.13786
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elliott JE, Greising SM, Mantilla CB, Sieck GC. Functional impact of sarcopenia in respiratory muscles. Respir Physiol Neurobiol. 2016;226:137–146. doi:10.1016/j.resp.2015.10.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greising SM, Mantilla CB, Medina-Martínez JS, Stowe JM, Sieck GC. Functional impact of diaphragm muscle sarcopenia in both male and female mice. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2015;309(1):L46–52. doi:10.1152/ajplung.00064.2015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cattapan SE, Laghi F, Tobin MJ. Can diaphragmatic contractility be assessed by airway twitch pressure in mechanically ventilated patients? Thorax. 2003;58(1):58–62. doi:10.1136/thorax.58.1.58
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laghi FA, Saad M, Shaikh H. Ultrasound and non-ultrasound imaging techniques in the assessment of diaphragmatic dysfunction. BMC Pulm Med. 2021;21(1):85. doi:10.1186/s12890-021-01441-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goligher EC, Laghi F, Detsky ME, et al. Measuring diaphragm thickness with ultrasound in mechanically ventilated patients: feasibility, reproducibility and validity. Intensive Care Med. 2015;41(4):642–649. doi:10.1007/s00134-015-3687-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dubé BP, Dres M, Mayaux J, Demiri S, Similowski T, Demoule A. Ultrasound evaluation of diaphragm function in mechanically ventilated patients: comparison to phrenic stimulation and prognostic implications. Thorax. 2017;72(9):811–818. doi:10.1136/thoraxjnl-2016-209459
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dres M, Demoule A. Monitoring diaphragm function in the ICU. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2020;26(1):18–25. doi:10.1097/MCC.0000000000000682
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tuinman PR, Jonkman AH, Dres M, et al. Respiratory muscle ultrasonography: methodology, basic and advanced principles and clinical applications in ICU and ED patients-a narrative review. Intensive Care Med. 2020;46(4):594–605. doi:10.1007/s00134-019-05892-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Umbrello M, Formenti P, Longhi D, et al. Diaphragm ultrasound as indicator of respiratory effort in critically ill patients undergoing assisted mechanical ventilation: a pilot clinical study. Critical Care. 2015;19(1):161. doi:10.1186/s13054-015-0894-9
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Corradi F, Vetrugno L, Orso D, et al. Diaphragmatic thickening fraction as a potential predictor of response to continuous positive airway pressure ventilation in Covid-19 pneumonia: a single-center pilot study. Respir Physiol Neurobiol. 2021;284:103585. doi:10.1016/j.resp.2020.103585
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corradi F, Isirdi A, Malacarne P, et al. Low diaphragm muscle mass predicts adverse outcome in patients hospitalized for COVID-19 pneumonia: an exploratory pilot study. Minerva Anestesiol. 2021;87(4):432–438. doi:10.23736/S0375-9393.21.15129-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malhi H. Dysphagia: warning signs and management. British Journal of Nursing. 2016;25(10):546–549. doi:10.12968/bjon.2016.25.10.546
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Smithard D, Hansjee D, Henry D, et al. Inter-relationships between frailty, sarcopenia, undernutrition and dysphagia in older people who are admitted to acute frailty and medical wards: is there an older adult quartet? Geriatrics. 2020;5(3):41. doi:10.3390/geriatrics5030041
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wakabayashi H. Presbyphagia and sarcopenic dysphagia: association between aging, sarcopenia, and deglutition disorders. J Frailty Aging. 2014;3(2):97–103.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wakabayashi H, Kishima M, Itoda M, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of sarcopenic dysphagia: a scoping review. Dysphagia. 2021;36(3):523–531. doi:10.1007/s00455-021-10266-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campo-Rivera N, Ocampo-Chaparro JM, Carvajal-Ortiz R, Reyes-Ortiz CA. Sarcopenic dysphagia is associated with mortality in institutionalized older adults. J Am Med Dir Assoc. 2022;23(10):1720.e1711–1720.e1717. doi:10.1016/j.jamda.2022.06.016
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miles A, McRae J, Clunie G, et al. An international commentary on dysphagia and dysphonia during the COVID-19 pandemic. Dysphagia. 2022;37(6):1349–1374. doi:10.1007/s00455-021-10396-z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Regan J, Walshe M, Lavan S, et al. Post-extubation dysphagia and dysphonia amongst adults with COVID-19 in the Republic of Ireland: a prospective multi-site observational cohort study. Clin Otolaryngol. 2021;46(6):1290–1299. doi:10.1111/coa.13832
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zuercher P, Lang B, Moser M, Messmer AS, Waskowski J, Schefold JC. Dysphagia incidence in intensive care unit patients with coronavirus disease 2019: retrospective analysis following systematic dysphagia screening. J Laryngol Otol. 2022;136(12):1278–1283. doi:10.1017/S0022215122001517
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Naseeb MA, Volpe SL. Protein and exercise in the prevention of sarcopenia and aging. Nutr Res. 2017;40:1–20. doi:10.1016/j.nutres.2017.01.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tieland M, Dirks ML, van der Zwaluw N, et al. Protein supplementation increases muscle mass gain during prolonged resistance-type exercise training in frail elderly people: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Am Med Dir Assoc. 2012;13(8):713–719. doi:10.1016/j.jamda.2012.05.020
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tieland M, van de Rest O, Dirks ML, et al. Protein supplementation improves physical performance in frail elderly people: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Am Med Dir Assoc. 2012;13(8):720–726. doi:10.1016/j.jamda.2012.07.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dent E, Morley JE, Cruz-Jentoft AJ, et al. International clinical practice guidelines for sarcopenia (ICFSR): screening, diagnosis and management. J Nutr Health Aging. 2018;22(10):1148–1161. doi:10.1007/s12603-018-1139-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bauer J, Morley JE, Schols A, et al. Sarcopenia: a time for action. An SCWD position paper. J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle. 2019;10(5):956–961. doi:10.1002/jcsm.12483
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moonen HP, Hermans AJ, Jans I, van Zanten AR. Protein requirements and provision in hospitalised COVID-19 ward and ICU patients: agreement between calculations based on body weight and height, and measured bioimpedance lean body mass. Clin Nutr ESPEN. 2022;49:474–482. doi:10.1016/j.clnesp.2022.03.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barazzoni R, Bischoff SC, Breda J, et al. ESPEN expert statements and practical guidance for nutritional management of individuals with SARS-CoV-2 infection. Clin Nutr. 2020;39(6):1631–1638. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2020.03.022
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martindale R, Patel JJ, Taylor B, Arabi YM, Warren M, McClave SA. Nutrition therapy in critically ill patients with coronavirus disease 2019. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2020;44(7):1174–1184. doi:10.1002/jpen.1930
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Latham CM, Brightwell CR, Keeble AR, et al. Vitamin D promotes skeletal muscle regeneration and mitochondrial health. Front Physiol. 2021;12:660498. doi:10.3389/fphys.2021.660498
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beaudart C, Buckinx F, Rabenda V, et al. The effects of vitamin D on skeletal muscle strength, muscle mass, and muscle power: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2014;99(11):4336–4345. doi:10.1210/jc.2014-1742
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murai IH, Fernandes AL, Sales LP, et al. Effect of a single high dose of vitamin D3 on hospital length of stay in patients with moderate to severe COVID-19: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2021;325(11):1053–1060. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.26848
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dissanayake HA, de Silva NL, Sumanatilleke M, et al. Prognostic and therapeutic role of vitamin D in COVID-19: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2022;107(5):1484–1502. doi:10.1210/clinem/dgab892
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lakkireddy M, Gadiga SG, Malathi RD, et al. Impact of daily high dose oral vitamin D therapy on the inflammatory markers in patients with COVID 19 disease. Sci Rep. 2021;11(1):10641. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-90189-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Entrenas Castillo M, Entrenas Costa LM, Vaquero Barrios JM, et al. Effect of calcifediol treatment and best available therapy versus best available therapy on intensive care unit admission and mortality among patients hospitalized for COVID-19: a pilot randomized clinical study. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2020;203:105751. doi:10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105751
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NICE. National institute for health and care excellence: guidelines. In: COVID-19 Rapid Guideline: Vitamin D. London: National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE); 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Cruz-Jentoft AJ, Landi F, Schneider SM, et al. Prevalence of and interventions for sarcopenia in ageing adults: a systematic review. Report of the International Sarcopenia Initiative (EWGSOP and IWGS). Age Ageing. 2014;43(6):748–759. doi:10.1093/ageing/afu115
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leenders M, Verdijk LB, van der Hoeven L, van Kranenburg J, Nilwik R, van Loon LJ. Elderly men and women benefit equally from prolonged resistance-type exercise training. J Gerontol a Biol Sci Med Sci. 2013;68(7):769–779. doi:10.1093/gerona/gls241
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Felten-Barentsz KM, van Oorsouw R, Klooster E, et al. Recommendations for hospital-based physical therapists managing patients with COVID-19. Phys Ther. 2020;100(9):1444–1457. doi:10.1093/ptj/pzaa114
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang PY, Li Y, Wang Q. Sarcopenia: an underlying treatment target during the COVID-19 pandemic. Nutrition. 2021;84:111104. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2020.111104
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• da Silveira MP, da Silva Fagundes KK, Bizuti MR, Starck É, Rossi RC, de Resende ESDT. Physical exercise as a tool to help the immune system against COVID-19: an integrative review of the current literature. Clin Exp Med. 2021;21(1):15–28. doi:10.1007/s10238-020-00650-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones SA, Hunter CA. Is IL-6 a key cytokine target for therapy in COVID-19? Nat Rev Immunol. 2021;21(6):337–339. doi:10.1038/s41577-021-00553-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hunter CA, Jones SA. IL-6 as a keystone cytokine in health and disease. Nat Immunol. 2015;16(5):448–457. doi:10.1038/ni.3153
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smolen JS, Landewé RBM, Bijlsma JWJ, et al. EULAR recommendations for the management of rheumatoid arthritis with synthetic and biological disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs: 2019 update. Ann Rheum Dis. 2020;79(6):685–699. doi:10.1136/annrheumdis-2019-216655
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shankar-Hari M, Vale CL, Godolphin PJ, et al. Association between administration of IL-6 antagonists and mortality among patients hospitalized for COVID-19: a meta-analysis. JAMA. 2021;326(6):499–518. doi:10.1001/jama.2021.11330
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. Update to living WHO guideline on drugs for covid-19. BMJ. 2022;378:o2224. doi:10.1136/bmj.o2224
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Muñoz-Cánoves P, Scheele C, Pedersen BK, Serrano AL. Interleukin-6 myokine signaling in skeletal muscle: a double-edged sword? FEBS J. 2013;280(17):4131–4148. doi:10.1111/febs.12338
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsujinaka T, Fujita J, Ebisui C, et al. Interleukin 6 receptor antibody inhibits muscle atrophy and modulates proteolytic systems in interleukin 6 transgenic mice. J Clin Invest. 1996;97(1):244–249. doi:10.1172/JCI118398
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fujita R, Kawano F, Ohira T, et al. Anti-interleukin-6 receptor antibody (MR16-1) promotes muscle regeneration via modulation of gene expressions in infiltrated macrophages. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2014;1840(10):3170–3180. doi:10.1016/j.bbagen.2014.01.014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kostek MC, Nagaraju K, Pistilli E, et al. IL-6 signaling blockade increases inflammation but does not affect muscle function in the mdx mouse. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2012;13:106. doi:10.1186/1471-2474-13-106
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tournadre A, Pereira B, Dutheil F, et al. Changes in body composition and metabolic profile during interleukin 6 inhibition in rheumatoid arthritis. J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle. 2017;8(4):639–646. doi:10.1002/jcsm.12189
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suzuki R, Yamasoba D, Kimura I, et al. Attenuated fusogenicity and pathogenicity of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant. Nature. 2022;603(7902):700–705. doi:10.1038/s41586-022-04462-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aleem A, Akbar Samad AB, Slenker AK. Emerging variants of SARS-CoV-2 and novel therapeutics against coronavirus (COVID-19). In: StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing. StatPearls Publishing LLC; 2022.
   Google Scholar