250
Views
3
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
METHODOLOGY

The Doctors’ Effect on Patients’ Physical Health Outcomes Beyond the Intervention: A Methodological Review

ORCID Icon &
Pages 851-870 | Published online: 18 Jul 2022

References

  • Moreau A, Boussageon R, Girier P, Figon S. Efficacité thérapeutique de “l’effet médecin” en soins primaires. Presse Med. 2006;35(6):967–973. doi:10.1016/S0755-4982(06)74729-7
  • Cook JA, Bruckner T, MacLennan GS, Seiler CM. Clustering in surgical trials - database of intracluster correlations. Trials. 2012;132. doi:10.1186/1745-6215-13-2
  • De Vries EN, Ramrattan MA, Smorenburg SM, Gouma DJ, Boermeester MA. The incidence and nature of in-hospital adverse events: a systematic review. Qual Saf Health Care. 2008;17(3):216–223. doi:10.1136/qshc.2007.023622
  • Tam VC, Knowles SR, Cornish PL, Fine N, Marchesano R, Etchells EE. Frequency, type and clinical importance of medication history errors at admission to hospital: a systematic review. CMAJ. 2005;173(5):510–515. doi:10.1503/cmaj.045311
  • Van Walraven C, Bennett C, Jennings A, Austin PC, Forster AJ. Proportion of hospital readmissions deemed avoidable: a systematic review. CMAJ. 2011;183(7):E391–E402. doi:10.1503/cmaj.101860
  • Leppin AL, Gionfriddo MR, Kessler M, et al. Preventing 30-day hospital readmissions: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. JAMA Intern Med. 2014;174(7):1095–1107. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2014.1608
  • Tjarda Van Heek N, Kuhlmann KFD, Scholten RJ, et al. Hospital volume and mortality after pancreatic resection: a systematic review and an evaluation of intervention in The Netherlands. Conference Paper. Ann Surg. 2005;242(6):781–790. doi:10.1097/01.sla.0000188462.00249.36
  • Kristensen PK, Merlo J, Ghith N, Leckie G, Johnsen SP. Hospital differences in mortality rates after Hip fracture surgery in Denmark. Clin Epidemiol. 2019;11:605–614. doi:10.2147/CLEP.S213898
  • Nilsen SM, Bjørngaard JH, Carlsen F, et al. Hospitals´ discharge tendency and risk of death-an analysis of 60,000 Norwegian Hip fracture patients. Clin Epidemiol. 2020;12:173–182. doi:10.2147/CLEP.S237060
  • Krell RW, Girotti ME, Dimick JB. Extended length of stay after surgery: complications, inefficient practice, or sick patients? JAMA Surg. 2014;149(8):815–820. doi:10.1001/jamasurg.2014.629
  • Riedl D, Schüßler G. The influence of doctor-patient communication on health outcomes: a systematic review. Z Psychosom Med Psychother. 2017;63(2):131–150. doi:10.13109/zptm.2017.63.2.131
  • Di Blasi Z, Harkness E, Ernst E, Georgiou A, Kleijnen J. Influence of context effects on health outcomes: a systematic review. Lancet. 2001;357(9258):757–762. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(00
  • Cabana MD, Slish KK, Evans D, et al. Impact of Physician Asthma Care Education on Patient Outcomes. Health Educ Behav. 2014;41(5):509–517. doi:10.1177/1090198114547510
  • Thomas KB. General practice consultations: is there any point in being positive? Br Med J. 1987;294(6581):1200–1202. doi:10.1136/bmj.294.6581.1200
  • Singh S, Lin YL, Nattinger AB, Kuo YF, Goodwin JS. Variation in readmission rates by emergency departments and emergency department providers caring for patients after discharge. J Hospital Med. 2015;10(11):705–710. doi:10.1002/jhm.2407
  • Alruthia Y, Sales I, Almalag H, et al. The relationship between health-related quality of life and trust in primary care physicians among patients with diabetes. Clin Epidemiol. 2020;12:143–151. doi:10.2147/CLEP.S236952
  • Sperl-Hillen J, Beaton S, Fernandes O, et al. Comparative effectiveness of patient education methods for type 2 diabetes: a randomized controlled trial. Arch Intern Med. 2011;171(22):2001–2010. doi:10.1001/archinternmed.2011.507
  • Walwyn R, Roberts C. Therapist variation within randomised trials of psychotherapy: implications for precision, internal and external validity. Stat Methods Med Res. 2010;19(3):291–315. doi:10.1177/0962280209105017
  • Walwyn R, Roberts C. Meta-analysis of absolute mean differences from randomised trials with treatment-related clustering associated with care providers. Stat Med. 2015;34(6):966–983. doi:10.1002/sim.6379
  • Wampold BE, Imel ZE. The Great Psychotherapy Debate: The Evidence for What Makes Psychotherapy Work: Second Edition. Taylor and Francis Inc; 2015:1–323.
  • Baldwin SA, Imel Z. Therapist effects: findings and methods. Bergin Garfield’s Handbook Psychother Behavior Change. 2013;6:258–297.
  • Anderson BR, Ciarleglio AJ, Cohen DJ, et al. The Norwood operation: relative effects of surgeon and institutional volumes on outcomes and resource utilization. Cardiol Young. 2016;26(4):683–692. doi:10.1017/s1047951115001031
  • Papachristofi O, Klein AA, Mackay J, Nashef S, Fletcher N, Sharples LD. Effect of individual patient risk, centre, surgeon and anaesthetist on length of stay in hospital after cardiac surgery: association of Cardiothoracic Anaesthesia and Critical Care (ACTACC) consecutive cases series study of 10 UK specialist centres. BMJ Open. 2017;7(9):e016947. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2017-016947
  • Singh S, Sparapani R, Wang MC. Variations in 30-day readmissions and length of stay among spine surgeons: a national study of elective spine surgery among US Medicare beneficiaries. J Neurosurg Spine. 2018;29(3):286–291. doi:10.3171/2018.1.Spine171064
  • Healy MA, Regenbogen SE, Kanters AE, et al. Surgeon variation in complications with minimally invasive and open colectomy: results from the Michigan surgical quality collaborative. JAMA Surg. 2017;152(9):860–867. doi:10.1001/jamasurg.2017.1527
  • Gani F, Lucas DJ, Kim Y, Schneider EB, Pawlik TM. Understanding Variation in 30-Day Surgical Readmission in the Era of Accountable Care: effect of the Patient, Surgeon, and Surgical Subspecialties. JAMA Surg. 2015;150(11):1042–1049. doi:10.1001/jamasurg.2015.2215
  • Thigpen CA, Floyd SB, Chapman C, et al. Comparison of surgeon performance of rotator cuff repair: risk adjustment toward a more accurate performance measure. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2018;100(24):2110–2117. doi:10.2106/jbjs.18.00211
  • Singh S, Goodwin JS, Zhou J, Kuo YF, Nattinger AB. Variation among primary care physicians in 30-day readmissions. Ann Intern Med. 2019;170(11):749–755. doi:10.7326/m18-2526
  • Kerlin MP, Weissman GE, Wonneberger KA, et al. Validation of administrative definitions of invasive mechanical ventilation across 30 intensive care units. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2016;194(12):1548–1552. doi:10.1164/rccm.201605-0953LE
  • Beckett DJ, Spears M, Thomson E. Reliable consultant level data from an Acute Medical Unit: a powerful tool for improvement. J R Coll Physicians Edinb. 2018;48(2):108–113. doi:10.4997/jrcpe.2018.202
  • Harley M, Mohammed MA, Hussain S, Yates J, Almasri A. Was Rodney Ledward a statistical outlier? Retrospective analysis using routine hospital data to identify gynaecologists’ performance. Br Med J. 2005;330(7497):929–932. doi:10.1136/bmj.38377.675440.8F
  • Schnelle C, Clark J, Mascord R, Jones M. Is there a surgeons’ effect on patients’ physical health, beyond the intervention, that requires further investigation?. Ther Clin Risk Manag. 2022;1(18):467–490. doi:10.2147/TCRM.S357934
  • Mbuagbaw L, Lawson DO, Puljak L, Allison DB, Thabane L. A tutorial on methodological studies: the what, when, how and why. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2020;20(1):226. doi:10.1186/s12874-020-01107-7
  • Higgins JPT TJ, Chandler J, Cumpston M, Li T, Page MJ, Welch VA Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions version 6.1 (updated September 2020); 2020. Available from: https://training.cochrane.org/cochrane-handbook-systematic-reviews-interventions. Accessed January 17, 2021.
  • Wells GA, Shea B, O’Connell D, et al. The Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS) for Assessing the Quality of Nonrandomised Studies in Meta-Analyses. Oxford; 2000.
  • Stang A. Critical evaluation of the Newcastle-Ottawa scale for the assessment of the quality of nonrandomized studies in meta-analyses. Eur J Epidemiol. 2010;25(9):603–605. doi:10.1007/s10654-010-9491-z
  • Allison PD. Fixed Effects Regression Models. Vol 160. (Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences. SAGE publications; 2009.
  • Glance LG, Dick AW. In Response. Anesth Analg. 2016;122(5):1722–1727. doi:10.1213/ANE.0000000000001194
  • Papachristofi O, Sharples LD, Mackay JH, Nashef SAM, Fletcher SN, Klein AA. The contribution of the anaesthetist to risk-adjusted mortality after cardiac surgery. Anaesthesia. 2016;71(2):138–146. doi:10.1111/anae.13291
  • Kunadian B, Dunning J, Roberts AP, Morley R, de Belder MA. Funnel plots for comparing performance of PCI performing hospitals and cardiologists: demonstration of utility using the New York hospital mortality data. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv. 2009;73(5):589–594. doi:10.1002/ccd.21893
  • DeLong ER, Peterson ED, DeLong DM, Muhlbaier LH, Hackett S, Mark DB. Comparing risk-adjustment methods for provider profiling. Stat Med. 1997;16(23):2645–2664. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0258(19971215)16:23<2645::
  • Goodwin JS, Lin YL, Singh S, Kuo YF. Variation in length of stay and outcomes among hospitalized patients attributable to hospitals and hospitalists. J Gen Intern Med. 2013;28(3):370–376. doi:10.1007/s11606-012-2255-6
  • Gutacker N, Bloor K, Bojke C, Walshe K. Should interventions to reduce variation in care quality target doctors or hospitals? Health Policy. 2018;122(6):660–666. doi:10.1016/j.healthpol.2018.04.004
  • Glance LG, Kellermann AL, Hannan EL, et al. RETRACTED The impact of anesthesiologists on coronary artery bypass graft surgery outcomes. Anesth Analg. 2015;120(3):526–533. doi:10.1213/ANE.0000000000000522
  • Glance LG, Hannan EL, Fleisher LA, et al. Feasibility of Report Cards for Measuring Anesthesiologist Quality for Cardiac Surgery. Anesth Analg. 2016;122(5):1603–1613. doi:10.1213/ane.0000000000001252
  • Hox JJ. Multilevel Analysis: Techniques and Applications: Second Edition. Routledge Taylor & Francis Group; 2010:1–382.
  • Raudenbush SW, Bryk AS. Hierarchical Linear Models: Applications and Data Analysis Methods. Vol. 1. sage; 2002.
  • Wampold BE. The Great Psychotherapy Debate: Models, Methods, and Findings. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc; 2001.
  • Kraemer HC, Kupfer DJ. Size of treatment effects and their importance to clinical research and practice. Biol Psychiatry. 2006;59(11):990–996. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.09.014
  • Cohen J. Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences. 2nd ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Earlbam Associates; 1988.
  • Aquina C, Probst C, Hensley B, et al. High variability in nosocomial clostridium difficile infection rates among both surgeons and hospitals following colorectal resection. Conference Abstract. Dis Colon Rectum. 2015;58(5):e163. doi:10.1097/01.dcr.0000464773.42498.34
  • Aquina CT, Blumberg N, Probst CP, et al. Significant variation in blood transfusion practice persists following upper gi cancer resection. J Gastrointest Surg. 2015;19(11):1927–1937. doi:10.1007/s11605-015-2903-3
  • Aquina CT, Blumberg N, Probst CP, et al. Large variation in blood transfusion use after colorectal resection: a call to action. Dis Colon Rectum. 2016;59(5):411–418. doi:10.1097/dcr.0000000000000588
  • Aquina CT, Fleming FJ, Becerra AZ, et al. Explaining variation in ventral and inguinal hernia repair outcomes: a population-based analysis. Surgery. 2017;162(3):628–639. doi:10.1016/j.surg.2017.03.013
  • Arvidsson D, Berndsen FH, Larsson LG, et al. Randomized clinical trial comparing 5-year recurrence rate after laparoscopic versus Shouldice repair of primary inguinal hernia. Br J Surg. 2005;92(9):1085–1091. doi:10.1002/bjs.5137
  • Becerra AZ, Aquina CT, Berho M, et al. Surgeon-, pathologist-, and hospital-level variation in suboptimal lymph node examination after colectomy: compartmentalizing quality improvement strategies. Surgery. 2017;161(5):1299–1306. doi:10.1016/j.surg.2016.11.029
  • Begg CB, Riedel ER, Bach PB, et al. Variations in morbidity after radical prostatectomy. N Eng J Med. 2002;346(15):1138–1144. doi:10.1056/NEJMsa011788
  • Bianco FJ, Riedel ER, Begg CB, Kattan MW, Scardino PT. Variations among high volume surgeons in the rate of complications after radical prostatectomy: further evidence that technique matters. J Urol. 2005;173(6):2099–2103. doi:10.1097/01.ju.0000158163.21079.66
  • Bianco JFJ, Vickers AJ, Cronin AM, et al. Variations among experienced surgeons in cancer control after open radical prostatectomy. J Urol. 2010;183(3):977–983. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2009.11.015
  • Bolling SF, Li S, O’Brien SM, Brennan JM, Prager RL, Gammie JS. Predictors of mitral valve repair: clinical and surgeon factors. Ann Thoracic Surgery. 2010;90(6):1904–1911. doi:10.1016/j.athoracsur.2010.07.062
  • Bridgewater B, Grayson AD, Jackson M, et al. Surgeon specific mortality in adult cardiac surgery: comparison between crude and risk stratified data. BMJ. 2003;327(7405):13–17. doi:10.1136/bmj.327.7405.13
  • Bridgewater B. Mortality data in adult cardiac surgery for named surgeons: retrospective examination of prospectively collected data on coronary artery surgery and aortic valve replacement. Br Med J. 2005;330(7490):506–510. doi:10.1136/bmj.330.7490.506
  • Brown EC, Robicsek A, Billings LK, et al. Evaluating Primary Care Physician Performance in Diabetes Glucose Control. Am J Med Qual. 2016;31(5):392–399. doi:10.1177/1062860615585138
  • Burns EM, Bottle A, Aylin P, Darzi A, John Nicholls R, Faiz O. Variation in reoperation after colorectal surgery in England as an indicator of surgical performance: retrospective analysis of Hospital Episode Statistics. BMJ. 2011;343(7820):d4836. doi:10.1136/bmj.d4836
  • Cirillo F, Patrizio P, Baccini M, et al. The human factor: does the operator performing the embryo transfer significantly impact the cycle outcome? Human Reproduction. 2020;35(2):275–282. doi:10.1093/humrep/dez290
  • Cromwell D, Hilton P. Retrospective cohort study on patterns of care and outcomes of surgical treatment for lower urinary-genital tract fistula among English National Health Service hospitals between 2000 and 2009. BJU Int. 2013;111(4 B):E257–E262. doi:10.1111/j.1464-410X.2012.11483.x
  • Dagenais J, Bertolo R, Garisto J, et al. Variability in Partial Nephrectomy Outcomes: does Your Surgeon Matter? Eur Urol. 2019;75(4):628–634. doi:10.1016/j.eururo.2018.10.046
  • Davenport MS, Khalatbari S, Keshavarzi N, et al. Differences in Outcomes Associated With Individual Radiologists for Emergency Department Patients With Headache Imaged With CT: a Retrospective Cohort Study of 25,596 Patients. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2020:1–8. doi:10.2214/ajr.19.22189
  • Duclos A, Peix JL, Colin C, et al. Influence of experience on performance of individual surgeons in thyroid surgery: prospective cross sectional multicentre study. BMJ. 2012;344(7843):d8041. doi:10.1136/bmj.d8041
  • Eastham JA, Kattan MW, Riedel E, et al. Variations among individual surgeons in the rate of positive surgical margins in radical prostatectomy specimens. J Urol. 2003;170(6):I):2292–2295. doi:10.1097/01.ju.0000091100.83725.51
  • Eijkenaar F, van Vliet RC. Profiling individual physicians using administrative data from a single insurer: variance components, reliability, and implications for performance improvement efforts. Med Care. 2013;51(8):731–739. doi:10.1097/MLR.0b013e3182992bc1
  • Eklund AS, Montgomery AK, Rasmussen IC, Sandbue RP, Bergkvist LÅ, Rudberg CR. Low Recurrence Rate After Laparoscopic (TEP) and Open (Lichtenstein) Inguinal Hernia Repair: a Randomized, Multicenter Trial With 5-Year Follow-Up. Ann Surg. 2009;249(1):33–38. doi:10.1097/SLA.0b013e31819255d0
  • Faschinger C. Quality assessment of cataract surgery of the Department of Ophthalmology, Medical University of Graz. Spektrum Augenheilkd. 2011;25(3):215–219. doi:10.1007/s00717-011-0013-5
  • Fountain J, Gallagher J, Brown J. A practical approach to a multi-level analysis with a sparse binary outcome within a large surgical trial. J Eval Clin Pract. 2004;10(2):323–327. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2753.2003.00462.x
  • Glance LG, Dick A, Osler TM, Li Y, Mukamel DB. Impact of changing the statistical methodology on hospital and surgeon ranking: the case of the New York State cardiac surgery report card. Med Care. 2006;44(4):311–319. doi:10.1097/01.mlr.0000204106.64619.2a
  • Gossl M, Rihal CS, Lennon RJ, Singh M. Assessment of individual operator performance using a risk-adjustment model for percutaneous coronary interventions. Mayo Clin Proc. 2013;88(11):1250–1258. doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2013.07.017
  • Grant SW, Grayson AD, Jackson M, et al. Does the choice of risk-adjustment model influence the outcome of surgeon-specific mortality analysis? A retrospective analysis of 14 637 patients under 31 surgeons. Heart. 2008;94(8):1044–1049. doi:10.1136/hrt.2006.110478
  • Hannan EL, Zhong Y, Jacobs AK, et al. Incomplete revascularization for percutaneous coronary interventions: variation among operators, and association with operator and hospital characteristics. Am Heart J. 2017;186:118–126. doi:10.1016/j.ahj.2017.01.015
  • Hermanek P. Impact of surgeon’s technique on outcome after treatment of rectal carcinoma. Dis Colon Rectum. 1999;42(5):559–562. doi:10.1007/bf02234128
  • Hermann M, Alk G, Roka R, Glaser K, Freissmuth M. Laryngeal recurrent nerve injury in surgery for benign thyroid diseases: effect of nerve dissection and impact of individual surgeon in more than 27,000 nerves at risk. Ann Surg. 2002;235(2):261–268. doi:10.1097/00000658-200202000-00015
  • Hofer TP, Hayward RA, Greenfield S, Wagner EH, Kaplan SH, Manning WG. The unreliability of individual physician ‘report cards’ for assessing the costs and quality of care of a chronic disease. J Am Med Assoc. 1999;281(22):2098–2105. doi:10.1001/jama.281.22.2098
  • Hoffman RL, Kelz RR, Wirtalla CJ, et al. Variations in surgical outcomes: is it the residency program, the surgeon or the practice venue? Conference Abstract. J Am Coll Surg. 2017;225(4):S185.
  • Holmboe ES, Weng W, Arnold GK, et al. The comprehensive care project: measuring physician performance in ambulatory practice. Health Serv Res. 2010;45(6 Pt 2):1912–1933. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6773.2010.01160.x
  • Huesch MD. Can managed care plans reliably infer the quality of cardiac surgeons’ outcomes? Am J Manag Care. Dec. 2009;15(12):890–896.
  • Hyder O, Dodson RM, Nathan H, et al. Influence of patient, physician, and hospital factors on 30-day readmission following pancreatoduodenectomy in the United States. JAMA Surg. 2013;148(12):1095–1102. doi:10.1001/jamasurg.2013.2509
  • Jemt T, Olsson M, Renouard F, Stenport V, Friberg B. Early Implant Failures Related to Individual Surgeons: an Analysis Covering 11,074 Operations Performed during 28 Years. Clin Implant Dent Relat Res. 2016;18(5):861–872. doi:10.1111/cid.12379
  • Johnston RL, Taylor H, Smith R, Sparrow JM. The Cataract National Dataset electronic multi-centre audit of 55,567 operations: variation in posterior capsule rupture rates between surgeons. Eye. 2010;24(5):888–893. doi:10.1038/eye.2009.195
  • Justiniano CF, Aquina CT, Fleming FJ, et al. Hospital and surgeon variation in positive circumferential resection margin among rectal cancer patients. Am J Surg. 2019;218(5):881–886. doi:10.1016/j.amjsurg.2019.02.029
  • Kaczmarski K, Wang P, Gilmore R, et al. Surgeon re-excision rates after breast-conserving surgery: a measure of low-value care. J Am Coll Surg. 2019;228(4):504–512.e2. doi:10.1016/j.jamcollsurg.2018.12.043
  • Kaplan SH, Griffith JL, Price LL, Pawlson LG, Greenfield S. Improving the reliability of physician performance assessment: identifying the “physician effect” on quality and creating composite measures. Med Care. 2009;47(4):378–387. doi:10.1097/MLR.0b013e31818dce07
  • Prasad-Kerlin MP, Epstein A, Kahn JM, et al. Physician-level variation in outcomes of mechanically ventilated patients. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 2018;15(3):371–379. doi:10.1513/AnnalsATS.201711-867OC
  • Kissenberth M, Thigpen C, Brooks J, Floyd S, Hawkins RJ, Tokish JM. Comparing surgeon performance of rotator cuff repair: risk adjustment toward a fair performance measure. Arthroscopy J Arthroscopic Related Surgery. 2018;34(12):e3. doi:10.1016/j.arthro.2018.10.022
  • Krein SL, Hofer TP, Kerr EA, Hayward RA. Whom should we profile? Examining diabetes care practice variation among primary care providers, provider groups, and health care facilities. Health Serv Res. 2002;37(5):1159–1180. doi:10.1111/1475-6773.01102
  • Landercasper J, Borgert AJ, Fayanju OM, et al. Factors associated with reoperation in breast-conserving surgery for cancer: a prospective study of American society of breast surgeon members. Ann Surg Oncol. 2019;26(10):3321–3336. doi:10.1245/s10434-019-07547-w
  • LaPar DJ, Ailawadi G, Isbell JM, et al. Mitral valve repair rates correlate with surgeon and institutional experience. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2014;148(3):995–1003. doi:10.1016/j.jtcvs.2014.06.039
  • Likosky DS, Goldberg JB, DiScipio AW, et al. Variability in surgeons’ perioperative practices may influence the incidence of low-output failure after coronary artery bypass grafting surgery. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes. 2012;5(5):638–644. doi:10.1161/circoutcomes.112.967091
  • Luan WP, Leroux TC, Olsen C, Robb D, Skinner JS, Richard P. Variation in bariatric surgery costs and complication rates in the military health system. Mil Med. 2019. doi:10.1093/milmed/usz454
  • Martin BI, Mirza SK, Franklin GM, Lurie JD, MacKenzie TA, Deyo RA. Hospital and surgeon variation in complications and repeat surgery following incident lumbar fusion for common degenerative diagnoses. Health Serv Res. 2013;48(1):1–25. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6773.2012.01434.x
  • McCahill LE, Single RM, Aiello Bowles EJ, et al. Variability in reexcision following breast conservation surgery. JAMA. 2012;307(5):467–475. doi:10.1001/jama.2012.43
  • Navar-Boggan AM, Boggan JC, Stafford JA, Muhlbaier LH, McCarver C, Peterson ED. Hypertension control among patients followed by cardiologists. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes. 2012;5(3):352–357. doi:10.1161/circoutcomes.111.963488
  • O’Connor PJ, Rush WA, Davidson G, et al. Variation in quality of diabetes care at the levels of patient, physician, and clinic. Prev Chronic Dis. 2008;5(1):A15.
  • Orueta JF, Garcia-Alvarez A, Grandes G, Nuno-Solinis R. The origin of variation in primary care process and outcome indicators: patients, professionals, centers, and health districts. Medicine. 2015;94(31):e1314. doi:10.1097/md.0000000000001314
  • Papachristofi O, Mackay JH, Powell SJ, Nashef SAM, Sharples L. Impact of the anesthesiologist and surgeon on cardiac surgical outcomes. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2014;28(1):103–109. doi:10.1053/j.jvca.2013.07.004
  • Quinn CM, Bilimoria KY, Chung JW, Ko CY, Cohen ME, Stulberg JJ. Creating individual surgeon performance assessments in a statewide hospital surgical quality improvement collaborative. J Am Coll Surg. 2018;227(3):303–312.e3. doi:10.1016/j.jamcollsurg.2018.06.002
  • Rudmik L, Xu Y, Alt JA, et al. Evaluating surgeon-specific performance for endoscopic sinus surgery. JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2017;143(9):891–898. doi:10.1001/jamaoto.2017.0752
  • Selby JV, Schmittdiel JA, Lee J, et al. Meaningful variation in performance: what does variation in quality tell us about improving quality? Med Care. 2010;48(2):133–139. doi:10.1097/MLR.0b013e3181c15a6e
  • Shih T, Cole AI, Al-Attar PM, et al. Reliability of surgeon-specific reporting of complications after colectomy. Ann Surg. 2015;261(5):920–925. doi:10.1097/sla.0000000000001032
  • Tuerk PW, Mueller M, Egede LE. Estimating physician effects on glycemic control in the treatment of diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2008;31(5):869–873. doi:10.2337/dc07-1662
  • Udyavar R, Cornwell EE, Havens JM, et al. Surgeon-driven variability in emergency general surgery outcomes: does it matter who is on call? Surgery. 2018;164(5):1109–1116. doi:10.1016/j.surg.2018.07.008
  • Udyavar NR, Salim A, Havens JM, et al. The impact of individual physicians on outcomes after trauma: is it the system or the surgeon? J Surg Res. 2018;229:51–57. doi:10.1016/j.jss.2018.02.051
  • Udyavar NR, Salim A, Cornwell EE, et al. Racial differences in complication risk following emergency general surgery: who your surgeon is may matter. J Surg Res. 2019;235:424–431. doi:10.1016/j.jss.2018.05.086
  • Verma AA, Guo Y, Jung HY, et al. Physician-level variation in clinical outcomes and resource use in inpatient general internal medicine: an observational study. BMJ Qual Saf. 2020. doi:10.1136/bmjqs-2019-010425
  • Xu T, Makary MA, Al Kazzi E, Zhou M, Pawlik TM, Hutfless SM. Surgeon-level variation in postoperative complications. J Gastrointest Surg. 2016;20(7):1393–1399. doi:10.1007/s11605-016-3139-6
  • Xu T, Mehta A, Park A, Makary MA, Price DW. Association Between Board Certification, Maintenance of Certification, and Surgical Complications in the United States. Am J Med Qual. 2019;34(6):545–552. doi:10.1177/1062860618822752
  • Ukoumunne OC. A comparison of confidence interval methods for the intraclass correlation coefficient in cluster randomized trials. Stat Med. 2002;21(24):3757–3774. doi:10.1002/sim.1330
  • Carpenter J, Bithell J. Bootstrap confidence intervals: when, which, what? A practical guide for medical statisticians. Stat Med. 2000;19(9):1141–1164. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0258(20000515)19:9<1141::
  • KI Shine. Percutaneous Coronary Interventions (PCI) in New York State 2002-2004. New York State Department of Health; 2006.