Mitigating The Burden Of Diabetes In Sub-Saharan Africa Through An Integrated Diagonal Health Systems Approach

References

• GBD 2017 Risk Factor Collaborators. Global, regional, and national comparative risk assessment of 84 behavioural, environmental and occupational, and metabolic risks or clusters of risks for 195 countries and territories, 1990-2017: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017. Lancet Lond Engl . 2018;392(10159):1923–1994. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(18)32225-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• International Diabetes Federation. Regional fact sheet: Africa | World Diabetes Foundation. Available from: https://www.worlddiabetesfoundation.org/files/regional-fact-sheet-africa 2017 Accessed 2 26, 2019.
   Google Scholar
• Assah F , Mbanya JC . Diabetes in sub-Saharan Africa In: Dagogo-Jack S , editor. Diabetes Mellitus in Developing Countries and Underserved Communities . Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017:33–48. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-41559-8_3
   Google Scholar
• Atun R , Davies JI , Gale EAM , et al. Diabetes in sub-Saharan Africa: from clinical care to health policy. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol . 2017;5(8):622–667. doi:10.1016/S2213-8587(17)30181-X 28688818
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de-Graft Aikins A , Unwin N , Agyemang C , Allotey P , Campbell C , Arhinful D . Tackling Africa’s chronic disease burden: from the local to the global. Glob Health . 2010;6:5. doi:10.1186/1744-8603-6-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• International Diabetes Federation - Complications. Available from: https://www.idf.org/aboutdiabetes/complications.html Accessed 7 9, 2019.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. WHO Global Report on Diabetes . WHO 2016 Available from: http://www.who.int/diabetes/global-report/en/ Accessed February 27, 2019.
   Google Scholar
• Pastakia SD , Pekny CR , Manyara SM , Fischer L . Diabetes in sub-Saharan Africa – from policy to practice to progress: targeting the existing gaps for future care for diabetes. Diabetes Metab Syndr Obes Targets Ther . 2017;10:247–263. doi:10.2147/DMSO.S126314
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization, ed. Monitoring the Building Blocks of Health Systems: A Handbook of Indicators and Their Measurement Strategies . Geneva: World Health Organization; 2010.
   Google Scholar
• Knaul FM , Bhadelia A , Atun R , Frenk J . Achieving effective universal health coverage and diagonal approaches to care for chronic illnesses. Health Aff Proj Hope . 2015;34(9):1514–1522. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2015.0514
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Orenstein WA , Seib K . Beyond vertical and horizontal programs: a diagonal approach to building national immunization programs through measles elimination. Expert Rev Vaccines . 2016;15(7):791–793. doi:10.1586/14760584.2016.1165614 26967373
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. WHO | Vertical–Horizontal Synergy of the Health Workforce . WHO 2005 Available from: https://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/83/4/editorial10405/en/ Accessed February 28, 2019.
   Google Scholar
• Frenk J . Bridging the divide: global lessons from evidence-based health policy in Mexico. Lancet Lond Engl . 2006;368(9539):954–961. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69376-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sepúlveda J , Bustreo F , Tapia R , et al. Improvement of child survival in Mexico: the diagonal approach. Lancet Lond Engl . 2006;368(9551):2017–2027. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69569-X
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uplekar M , Raviglione MC . The “vertical-horizontal” debates: time for the pendulum to rest (in peace)? Bull World Health Organ . 2007;85(5):413–414. doi:10.2471/blt.07.041756 17639232
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frenk J . Bridging the divide: comprehensive reform to improve health in Mexico. Lect WHO Comm Soc Determinants Health Nairobi . 2006;17.
   Google Scholar
• Ooms G , Van Damme W , Baker BK , Zeitz P , Schrecker T . The “diagonal” approach to global fund financing: a cure for the broader malaise of health systems? Glob Health . 2008;4:6. doi:10.1186/1744-8603-4-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gounder CR , Chaisson RE . A diagonal approach to building primary healthcare systems in resource-limited settings: women-centred integration of HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria, MCH and NCD initiatives. Trop Med Int Health TM IH . 2012;17(12):1426–1431. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3156.2012.03100.x 23113824
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hagan JE , Greiner A , Luvsansharav U-O , et al. Use of a diagonal approach to health system strengthening and measles elimination after a large nationwide outbreak in Mongolia. Emerg Infect Dis . 2017;23:13. doi:10.3201/eid2313.170594
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirigia JM , Kirigia DG . The essence of governance in health development. Int Arch Med . 2011;4:11. doi:10.1186/1755-7682-4-11 21443766
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Beran D , Yudkin JS . Diabetes care in sub-Saharan Africa. Lancet Lond Engl . 2006;368(9548):1689–1695. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69704-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poore S , Foster A , Zondervan M , Blanchet K . Planning and developing services for diabetic retinopathy in Sub-Saharan Africa. Int J Health Policy Manag . 2015;4(1):19–28. doi:10.15171/ijhpm.2015.04 25584349
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• WHO | Tool for assessment of diabetes and diabetic retinopathy. WHO. Available from: http://www.who.int/blindness/publications/tadds/en/ Accessed 7 9, 2019.
   Google Scholar
• Cooke JG . Public health in Africa – a report of the CSIS global health policy center. J Public Health Afr . 2010;1:1. doi:10.4081/jphia.2010.e8
   Google Scholar
• Labadarios D , Steyn NP , Mgijima C , Daldla N . Review of the South African nutrition policy 1994-2002 and targets for 2007: achievements and challenges. Nutr Burbank Los Angel Cty Calif . 2005;21(1):100–108. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2004.09.014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Naik R , Kaneda T . Noncommunicable Diseases in Africa: Youth are Key to Curbing the Epidemic and Achieving Sustainable Development . Population Reference Bureau; 2015:12 Available from: www.prb.org.
   Google Scholar
• WHO | About Social Determinants of Health . WHO; 2019 Available from: http://www.who.int/social_determinants/sdh_definition/en/ Accessed July 9, 2019.
   Google Scholar
• Hill J , Nielsen M , Fox MH . Understanding the social factors that contribute to diabetes: a means to informing health care and social policies for the chronically ill. Perm J . 2013;17(2):67–72. doi:10.7812/TPP/12-099 23704847
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Engelgau MM , Rosenthal JP , Newsome BJ , Price L , Belis D , Mensah GA . Noncommunicable diseases in low- and middle-income countries. Glob Heart . 2018;13(2):131–137. doi:10.1016/j.gheart.2018.05.001 29970340
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirigia JM , Sambo HB , Sambo LG , Barry SP . Economic burden of diabetes mellitus in the WHO African region. BMC Int Health Hum Rights . 2009;9:6. doi:10.1186/1472-698X-9-6 19335903
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beran D , Ewen M , Laing R . Constraints and challenges in access to insulin: a global perspective. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol . 2016;4(3):275–285. doi:10.1016/S2213-8587(15)00521-5 26857998
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beran D , McCabe A , Yudkin JS . Access to medicines versus access to treatment: the case of type 1 diabetes. Bull World Health Organ . 2008;86(8):648–649. doi:10.2471/blt.07.048710 18797626
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Onyiriuka N, Ezomo O, Onyiriuka R. Cost of treating Insulin-requiring diabetes in children and adolescents. Journal of Institute of Medicine 2013;34(1):2–8. doi:10.3126/jiom.v34i1.9115
   Google Scholar
• Okoronkwo IL , Ekpemiro JN , Okwor EU , Okpala PU , Adeyemo FO . Economic burden and catastrophic cost among people living with type2 diabetes mellitus attending a tertiary health institution in south-east zone, Nigeria. BMC Res Notes . 2015;8:527. doi:10.1186/s13104-015-1489-x 26429704
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Health Action International and World Health Organization. Medicine Prices, Availability, Affordability & Price Components . Available from: http://www.haiweb.org/medicineprices/ 2017 Medicine Prices, Availability, Affordability & Price Components Available from: http://www.haiweb.org/medicineprices/ Accessed 2 28, 2019.
   Google Scholar
• Mendis S , Fukino K , Cameron A , et al. The availability and affordability of selected essential medicines for chronic diseases in six low- and middle-income countries. Bull World Health Organ . 2007;85(4):279–288. doi:10.2471/BLT.06.033647 17546309
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hall V , Thomsen RW , Henriksen O , Lohse N . Diabetes in Sub Saharan Africa 1999–2011: epidemiology and public health implications. A systematic review. BMC Public Health . 2011;11:564. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-11-564 21756350
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alouki K , Delisle H , Besançon S , et al. Simple calculator to estimate the medical cost of diabetes in sub-Saharan Africa. World J Diabetes . 2015;6(16):1312–1322. doi:10.4239/wjd.v6.i16.1312 26617974
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• The World Bank. Tracking Universal Health Coverage: 2017 Global Monitoring Report . The World Bank; 2017:1–88. Available from: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/640121513095868125/Tracking-universal-health-coverage-2017-global-monitoring-report Accessed 2 28, 2019.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. WHO | Health Systems Financing: The Path to Universal Coverage . WHO; 2010 Available from: /entity/whr/2010/en/index.html.
   Google Scholar
• Jan S , Laba T-L , Essue BM , et al. Action to address the household economic burden of non-communicable diseases. Lancet Lond Engl . 2018;391(10134):2047–2058. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(18)30323-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liese BH , Dussault G . The State of the Health Workforce in Sub-Saharan Africa. Evidence of Crisis and Analysis of Contributing Factors . 2004 Available from: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/412051468002680722/The-State-of-the-health-workforce-in-Sub-Saharan-Africa-evidence-of-crisis-and-analysis-of-contributing-factors
   Google Scholar
• Global Health Workforce Alliance and World Health Organization. A Universal Truth: No Health Without a Workforce. Third Global Forum on Human Resources for Health Report . 2013:104 Available from: https://www.who.int/workforcealliance/knowledge/resources/hrhreport2013/en/ Accessed 2 28, 2019.
   Google Scholar
• Central Intelligence Agency. Field Listing: physicians density — the world factbook. Available from: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/resources/the-world-factbook/fields/359.html Accessed 2 28, 2019.
   Google Scholar
• Tankwanchi ABS , Ozden C , Vermund SH . Physician emigration from sub-Saharan Africa to the United States: analysis of the 2011 AMA physician masterfile. PLoS Med . 2013;10(9):e1001513. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001513 24068894
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• The World Bank. Malawi – Population, Health and Nutrition Project . The World Bank; 2001 63 Available from: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/278651468300680324/Malawi-Population-Health-and-Nutrition-Project Accessed February 28, 2019..
   Google Scholar
• Nuche-Berenguer B , Kupfer LE . Readiness of sub-Saharan Africa healthcare systems for the new pandemic, diabetes: a systematic review. J Diabetes Res . 2018;2018:9262395. doi:10.1155/2018/9262395 29670916
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fulton BD , Scheffler RM , Sparkes SP , Auh EY , Vujicic M , Soucat A . Health workforce skill mix and task shifting in low income countries: a review of recent evidence. Hum Resour Health . 2011;9:1. doi:10.1186/1478-4491-9-1 21223546
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Webel AR , Okonsky J , Trompeta J , Holzemer WL . A systematic review of the effectiveness of peer-based interventions on health-related behaviors in adults. Am J Public Health . 2010;100(2):247–253. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2008.149419 20019321
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith DL , Bryant JH . Building the infrastructure for primary health care: an overview of vertical and integrated approaches. Soc Sci Med 1982 . 1988;26(9):909–917.
   Google Scholar
• Gill GV , Price C , Shandu D , Dedicoat M , Wilkinson D . An effective system of nurse-led diabetes care in rural Africa. Diabet Med J Br Diabet Assoc . 2008;25(5):606–611. doi:10.1111/j.1464-5491.2008.02421.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lekoubou A , Awah P , Fezeu L , Sobngwi E , Kengne AP . Hypertension, diabetes mellitus and task shifting in their management in sub-Saharan Africa. Int J Environ Res Public Health . 2010;7(2):353–363. doi:10.3390/ijerph7020353 20616978
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park PH , Wambui CK , Atieno S , et al. Improving diabetes management and cardiovascular risk factors through peer-led self-management support groups in Western Kenya. Diabetes Care . 2015;38(8):e110–e111. doi:10.2337/dc15-0353 26207058
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lupafya PC , Mwagomba BLM , Hosig K , Maseko LM , Chimbali H . Implementation of policies and strategies for control of noncommunicable diseases in Malawi: challenges and opportunities. Health Educ Behav Off Publ Soc Public Health Educ . 2016;43(1Suppl):64S–9S. doi:10.1177/1090198115614313
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGill M , Blonde L , Chan JCN , et al. The interdisciplinary team in type 2 diabetes management: challenges and best practice solutions from real-world scenarios. J Clin Transl Endocrinol . 2017;7:21–27. doi:10.1016/j.jcte.2016.12.001 29067246
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pastakia SD , Ali SM , Kamano JH , et al. Screening for diabetes and hypertension in a rural low income setting in western Kenya utilizing home-based and community-based strategies. Glob Health . 2013;9:21. doi:10.1186/1744-8603-9-21
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akanbi MO , Ocheke AN , Agaba PA , et al. Use of electronic health records in sub-Saharan Africa: progress and challenges. J Med Trop . 2012;14(1):1–6.25243111
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cline GB , Luiz JM . Information technology systems in public sector health facilities in developing countries: the case of South Africa. BMC Med Inform Decis Mak . 2013;13:13. doi:10.1186/1472-6947-13-13 23347433
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chaudhry B , Wang J , Wu S , et al. Systematic review: impact of health information technology on quality, efficiency, and costs of medical care. Ann Intern Med . 2006;144(10):742–752. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-144-10-200605160-00125 16702590
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Braitstein P , Einterz RM , Sidle JE , Kimaiyo S , Tierney W . “Talkin’ about a revolution”: how electronic health records can facilitate the scale-up of HIV care and treatment and catalyze primary care in resource-constrained settings. J WHOAcquir Immune Defic Syndr 1999 . 2009;52(Suppl 1):S54–S57. doi:10.1097/QAI.0b013e3181bbcb67
   Google Scholar
• Keeton C . Measuring the impact of e-health. Bull World Health Organ . 2012;90(5):326–327. doi:10.2471/BLT.12.020512 22589563
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ali MK , Shah S , Tandon N . Review of electronic decision-support tools for diabetes care: a viable option for low- and middle-income countries? J Diabetes Sci Technol . 2011;5(3):553–570. doi:10.1177/193229681100500310 21722571
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Glasgow RE , Orleans CT , Wagner EH . Does the chronic care model serve also as a template for improving prevention? Milbank Q . 2001;79(4):579–612, iv-v.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mutale W , Chintu N , Amoroso C , et al. Improving health information systems for decision making across five sub-Saharan African countries: implementation strategies from the African Health Initiative. BMC Health Serv Res . 2013;13(Suppl 2):S9. doi:10.1186/1472-6963-13-S2-S9 23819699
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• African Health Observatory. African Health Observatory. Available from: http://www.aho.afro.who.int/en Accessed 7 9, 2019.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. WHO | The Selection and Use of Essential Medicines . WHO; 2017 Available from: http://www.who.int/medicines/publications/essentialmedicines/trs-1006-2017/en/ Accessed February 28, 2019.
   Google Scholar
• Twagirumukiza M , Cosijns A , Pringels E , Remon JP , Vervaet C , Van Bortel L . Influence of tropical climate conditions on the quality of antihypertensive drugs from Rwandan pharmacies. Am J Trop Med Hyg . 2009;81(5):776–781. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.2009.09-0109 19861610
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beran D , Yudkin JS . Looking beyond the issue of access to insulin: what is needed for proper diabetes care in resource poor settings. Diabetes Res Clin Pract . 2010;88(3):217–221. doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2010.03.029 20447710
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beran D , Yudkin JS , de Courten M . Access to care for patients with insulin-requiring diabetes in developing countries: case studies of Mozambique and Zambia. Diabetes Care . 2005;28(9):2136–2140. doi:10.2337/diacare.28.9.2136 16123479
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garner P . The Bamako Initiative . 1989;299. doi:10.1136/bmj.299.6694.277
   Google Scholar
• Manji I , Manyara SM , Jakait B , et al. The revolving fund pharmacy model: backing up the ministry of health supply chain in western Kenya. Int J Pharm Pract . 2016;24(5):358–366. doi:10.1111/ijpp.12254 26913925
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Isaacs A , Manga N , Grange CL , Hellenberg DA , Titus V , Sayed R . Quality of care and cost of prescriptions for diabetes and hypertension at primary healthcare facilities in the Cape Town Metropole. South Afr Fam Pract . 2015;57(3):187–193. doi:10.1080/20786190.2014.976988
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mwavua SM , Ndungu EK , Mutai KK , Joshi MD . A comparative study of the quality of care and glycemic control among ambulatory type 2 diabetes mellitus clients, at a tertiary referral hospital and a regional hospital in central Kenya. BMC Res Notes . 2016;9:12. doi:10.1186/s13104-015-1826-0 26732585
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Peck R , Mghamba J , Vanobberghen F , et al. Preparedness of Tanzanian health facilities for outpatient primary care of hypertension and diabetes: a cross-sectional survey. Lancet Glob Health . 2014;2(5):e285–e292. doi:10.1016/S2214-109X(14)70033-6 24818084
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chamie G , Kwarisiima D , Clark TD , et al. Leveraging rapid community-based HIV testing campaigns for non-communicable diseases in rural Uganda. PLoS One . 2012;7(8):e43400. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0043400 22916256
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janssens B , Van Damme W , Raleigh B , et al. Offering integrated care for HIV/AIDS, diabetes and hypertension within chronic disease clinics in Cambodia. Bull World Health Organ . 2007;85(11):880–885. doi:10.2471/blt.06.036574 18038079
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Azevedo M , Alla S . Diabetes in sub-saharan Africa: Kenya, Mali, Mozambique, Nigeria, South Africa and Zambia. Int J Diabetes Dev Ctries . 2008;28(4):101–108. doi:10.4103/0973-3930.45268 20165596
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kane J , Landes M , Carroll C , Nolen A , Sodhi S . A systematic review of primary care models for non-communicable disease interventions in sub-Saharan Africa. BMC Fam Pract . 2017;18(1):46. doi:10.1186/s12875-017-0613-5 28330453
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar