854
Views
4
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
REVIEW

Adolescents with Type 2 Diabetes: Overcoming Barriers to Effective Weight Management

, , , ORCID Icon, &
Pages 693-711 | Received 25 Nov 2022, Accepted 09 Feb 2023, Published online: 09 Mar 2023

References

  • Lawrence JM, Divers J, Isom S, et al. Trends in prevalence of type 1 and type 2 diabetes in children and adolescents in the US, 2001–2017. JAMA. 2021;326(8):717–727. doi:10.1001/jama.2021.11165
  • Skinner AC, Ravanbakht SN, Skelton JA, Perrin EM, Armstrong SC. Prevalence of obesity and severe obesity in US children, 1999–2016. Pediatrics. 2018;141(3). doi:10.1542/peds.2017-3459
  • Stierman BA, Carroll J, Margaret D. National health and nutrition examination survey 2017–March 2020 prepandemic data files development of files and prevalence estimates for selected health outcomes. Available from: https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/106273. Accessed February 9, 2023.
  • Magge SN, Wolf RM, Pyle L, et al. The coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic is associated with a substantial rise in frequency and severity of presentation of youth-onset type 2 diabetes. J Pediatr. 2022;251:51–59.e2. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2022.08.010
  • Wu HJ, Patterson CC, Zhang XE, et al. Worldwide estimates of incidence of type 2 diabetes in children and adolescents in 2021. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2022;185:109785. doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2022.109785
  • Stumvoll M, Goldstein BJ, van Haeften TW. Type 2 diabetes: principles of pathogenesis and therapy. Lancet. 2005;365(9467):1333–1346. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)61032-X
  • Boden G, Shulman GI. Free fatty acids in obesity and type 2 diabetes: defining their role in the development of insulin resistance and beta-cell dysfunction. Eur J Clin Invest. 2002;32(Suppl 3):14–23. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2362.32.s3.3.x
  • Ying W, Fu W, Lee YS, Olefsky JM. The role of macrophages in obesity-associated islet inflammation and beta-cell abnormalities. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2020;16(2):81–90. doi:10.1038/s41574-019-0286-3
  • Esmaili S, Hemmati M, Karamian M. Physiological role of adiponectin in different tissues: a review. Arch Physiol Biochem. 2020;126(1):67–73. doi:10.1080/13813455.2018.1493606
  • Klingensmith GJ, Connor CG, Ruedy KJ, et al. Presentation of youth with type 2 diabetes in the Pediatric Diabetes Consortium. Pediatr Diabetes. 2016;17(4):266–273. doi:10.1111/pedi.12281
  • Liu LL, Lawrence JM, Davis C, et al. Prevalence of overweight and obesity in youth with diabetes in USA: the SEARCH for diabetes in Youth study. Pediatr Diabetes. 2010;11(1):4–11. doi:10.1111/j.1399-5448.2009.00519.x
  • Twig G, Zucker I, Afek A, et al. Adolescent obesity and early-onset type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2020;43(7):1487–1495. doi:10.2337/dc19-1988
  • Awa WL, Fach E, Krakow D, et al. Type 2 diabetes from pediatric to geriatric age: analysis of gender and obesity among 120,183 patients from the German/Austrian DPV database. Eur J Endocrinol. 2012;167(2):245–254. doi:10.1530/EJE-12-0143
  • Barnett AH, Eff C, Leslie RD, Pyke DA. Diabetes in identical twins. A study of 200 pairs. Diabetologia. 1981;20(2):87–93. doi:10.1007/BF00262007
  • Saleh M, Kim JY, March C, Gebara N, Arslanian S. Youth prediabetes and type 2 diabetes: risk factors and prevalence of dysglycaemia. Pediatr Obes. 2022;17(1):e12841. doi:10.1111/ijpo.12841
  • Ali O. Genetics of type 2 diabetes. World J Diabetes. 2013;4(4):114–123. doi:10.4239/wjd.v4.i4.114
  • Srinivasan S, Chen L, Todd J, et al. The first genome-wide association study for type 2 diabetes in youth: the progress in diabetes genetics in youth (ProDiGY) consortium. Diabetes. 2021;70(4):996–1005. doi:10.2337/db20-0443
  • Pena AS, Witchel SF, Hoeger KM, et al. Adolescent polycystic ovary syndrome according to the international evidence-based guideline. BMC Med. 2020;18(1):72. doi:10.1186/s12916-020-01516-x
  • Brazo-Sayavera J, Aubert S, Barnes JD, Gonzalez SA, Tremblay MS. Gender differences in physical activity and sedentary behavior: results from over 200,000 Latin-American children and adolescents. PLoS One. 2021;16(8):e0255353. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0255353
  • Meeks KA, Freitas-Da-Silva D, Adeyemo A, et al. Disparities in type 2 diabetes prevalence among ethnic minority groups resident in Europe: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Intern Emerg Med. 2016;11(3):327–340. doi:10.1007/s11739-015-1302-9
  • Pham TM, Carpenter JR, Morris TP, Sharma M, Petersen I. Ethnic differences in the prevalence of type 2 diabetes diagnoses in the UK: cross-sectional analysis of the health improvement network primary care database. Clin Epidemiol. 2019;11:1081–1088. doi:10.2147/CLEP.S227621
  • Titmuss A, Davis EA, Brown A, Maple-Brown LJ. Emerging diabetes and metabolic conditions among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander young people. Med J Aust. 2019;210(3):111–113 e1. doi:10.5694/mja2.13002
  • Kriska A, Delahanty L, Edelstein S, et al. Sedentary behavior and physical activity in youth with recent onset of type 2 diabetes. Pediatrics. 2013;131(3):e850–6. doi:10.1542/peds.2012-0620
  • Copeland KC, Zeitler P, Geffner M, et al. Characteristics of adolescents and youth with recent-onset type 2 diabetes: the TODAY cohort at baseline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96(1):159–167. doi:10.1210/jc.2010-1642
  • Dong YH, Zou ZY, Yang ZP, et al. Association between high birth weight and hypertension in children and adolescents: a cross-sectional study in China. J Hum Hypertens. 2017;31(11):737–743. doi:10.1038/jhh.2017.22
  • Franks PW, Looker HC, Kobes S, et al. Gestational glucose tolerance and risk of type 2 diabetes in young Pima Indian offspring. Diabetes. 2006;55(2):460–465. doi:10.2337/diabetes.55.02.06.db05-0823
  • Jefferies C, Carter P, Reed PW, et al. The incidence, clinical features, and treatment of type 2 diabetes in children <15 yr in a population-based cohort from Auckland, New Zealand, 1995–2007. Pediatr Diabetes. 2012;13(4):294–300. doi:10.1111/j.1399-5448.2012.00851.x
  • Chao LC, Vidmar AP, Georgia S. Spike in diabetic ketoacidosis rates in pediatric type 2 diabetes during the COVID-19 pandemic. Diabetes Care. 2021;44(6):1451–1453. doi:10.2337/dc20-2733
  • American Diabetes Association. 13. Children and adolescents: standards of medical care in diabetes-2021. Diabetes Care. 2021;44(Suppl1):S180–S199. doi:10.2337/dc21-S013
  • Arslanian S, Bacha F, Grey M, Marcus MD, White NH, Zeitler P. Evaluation and management of youth-onset type 2 diabetes: a position statement by the American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care. 2018;41(12):2648–2668. doi:10.2337/dci18-0052
  • Shah AS, Zeitler PS, Wong J, et al. ISPAD clinical practice consensus guidelines 2022: type 2 diabetes in children and adolescents. Pediatr Diabetes. 2022;23(7):872–902. doi:10.1111/pedi.13409
  • Sunil B, Ashraf AP. Dyslipidemia in pediatric type 2 diabetes mellitus. Curr Diab Rep. 2020;20(10):53. doi:10.1007/s11892-020-01336-6
  • Wang Y, Viscarra J, Kim SJ, Sul HS. Transcriptional regulation of hepatic lipogenesis. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2015;16(11):678–689. doi:10.1038/nrm4074
  • Group TS. Rapid rise in hypertension and nephropathy in youth with type 2 diabetes: the TODAY clinical trial. Diabetes Care. 2013;36(6):1735–1741. doi:10.2337/dc12-2420
  • Group TS, Bjornstad P, Drews KL, et al. Long-term complications in youth-onset type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2021;385(5):416–426. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2100165
  • Dabelea D, Stafford JM, Mayer-Davis EJ, et al. Association of type 1 diabetes vs type 2 diabetes diagnosed during childhood and adolescence with complications during teenage years and young adulthood. JAMA. 2017;317(8):825–835. doi:10.1001/jama.2017.0686
  • Songer TJ, Haymond MW, Glazner JE, et al. Healthcare and associated costs related to type 2 diabetes in youth and adolescence: the TODAY clinical trial experience. Pediatr Diabetes. 2019;20(6):702–711. doi:10.1111/pedi.12869
  • Katz LL, Anderson BJ, McKay SV, et al. Correlates of medication adherence in the TODAY cohort of youth with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2016;39(11):1956–1962. doi:10.2337/dc15-2296
  • Saydah S, Lochner K. Socioeconomic status and risk of diabetes-related mortality in the U.S. Public Health Rep. 2010;125(3):377–388. doi:10.1177/003335491012500306
  • Hill-Briggs F, Adler NE, Berkowitz SA, et al. Social determinants of health and diabetes: a scientific review. Diabetes Care. 2020;44:258–279. doi:10.2337/dci20-0053
  • Gulley LD, Shomaker LB. Depression in youth-onset type 2 diabetes. Curr Diab Rep. 2020;20(10):51. doi:10.1007/s11892-020-01334-8
  • Wang J, Wu X, Lai W, et al. Prevalence of depression and depressive symptoms among outpatients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open. 2017;7(8):e017173. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2017-017173
  • Sellers EAC, McLeod L, Prior HJ, Dragan R, Wicklow BA, Ruth C. Mental health comorbidity is common in children with type 2 diabetes. Pediatr Diabetes. 2022;23(7):991–998. doi:10.1111/pedi.13389
  • Silverstein J, Cheng P, Ruedy KJ, et al. Depressive symptoms in youth with type 1 or type 2 diabetes: results of the pediatric diabetes consortium screening assessment of depression in diabetes study. Diabetes Care. 2015;38(12):2341–2343. doi:10.2337/dc15-0982
  • Palmer DL, Berg CA, Wiebe DJ, et al. The role of autonomy and pubertal status in understanding age differences in maternal involvement in diabetes responsibility across adolescence. J Pediatr Psychol. 2004;29(1):35–46. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsh005
  • Anderson BJ, Vangsness L, Connell A, Butler D, Goebel-Fabbri A, Laffel LM. Family conflict, adherence, and glycaemic control in youth with short duration Type 1 diabetes. Diabet Med. 2002;19(8):635–642. doi:10.1046/j.1464-5491.2002.00752.x
  • Walders-Abramson N, Venditti EM, Ievers-Landis CE, et al. Relationships among stressful life events and physiological markers, treatment adherence, and psychosocial functioning among youth with type 2 diabetes. J Pediatr. 2014;165(3):504–508e1. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2014.05.020
  • Bonnet F, Irving K, Terra JL, Nony P, Berthezene F, Moulin P. Anxiety and depression are associated with unhealthy lifestyle in patients at risk of cardiovascular disease. Atherosclerosis. 2005;178(2):339–344. doi:10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2004.08.035
  • Walter KN, Wagner JA, Cengiz E, Tamborlane WV, Petry NM. Substance use disorders among patients with type 2 diabetes: a dangerous but understudied combination. Curr Diab Rep. 2017;17(1):2. doi:10.1007/s11892-017-0832-0
  • Underwood JM, Brener N, Thornton J, et al. Overview and methods for the youth risk behavior surveillance system - United States, 2019. MMWR Suppl. 2020;69(1):1–10. doi:10.15585/mmwr.su6901a1
  • Jones CM, Clayton HB, Deputy NP, et al. Prescription opioid misuse and use of alcohol and other substances among high school students - youth risk behavior survey, United States, 2019. MMWR Suppl. 2020;69(1):38–46. doi:10.15585/mmwr.su6901a5
  • Carlsson S, Hammar N, Grill V, Kaprio J. Alcohol consumption and the incidence of type 2 diabetes: a 20-year follow-up of the Finnish twin cohort study. Diabetes Care. 2003;26(10):2785–2790. doi:10.2337/diacare.26.10.2785
  • Pan A, Wang Y, Talaei M, Hu FB, Wu T. Relation of active, passive, and quitting smoking with incident type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2015;3(12):958–967. doi:10.1016/S2213-8587(15)00316-2
  • Group TS, Wilfley D, Berkowitz R, et al. Binge eating, mood, and quality of life in youth with type 2 diabetes: baseline data from the today study. Diabetes Care. 2011;34(4):858–860. doi:10.2337/dc10-1704
  • Nip ASY, Reboussin BA, Dabelea D, et al. Disordered eating behaviors in youth and young adults with type 1 or type 2 diabetes receiving insulin therapy: the SEARCH for diabetes in youth study. Diabetes Care. 2019;42(5):859–866. doi:10.2337/dc18-2420
  • Pinhas-Hamiel O, Levy-Shraga Y. Eating disorders in adolescents with type 2 and type 1 diabetes. Curr Diab Rep. 2013;13(2):289–297. doi:10.1007/s11892-012-0355-7
  • Winston AP. Eating Disorders and Diabetes. Curr Diab Rep. 2020;20(8):32. doi:10.1007/s11892-020-01320-0
  • American Diabetes Association. 2. Classification and diagnosis of diabetes: standards of medical care in diabetes-2021. Diabetes Care. 2021;44(Suppl1):S15–S33. doi:10.2337/dc21-S002
  • Khadilkar A, Oza C. Glycaemic control in youth and young adults: challenges and solutions. Diabetes Metab Syndr Obes. 2022;15:121–129. doi:10.2147/DMSO.S304347
  • Marcus MD, Wilfley DE, El Ghormli L, et al. Weight change in the management of youth-onset type 2 diabetes: the TODAY clinical trial experience. Pediatr Obes. 2017;12(4):337–345. doi:10.1111/ijpo.12148
  • Draznin B, Aroda VR, Bakris G, et al. 14. Children and adolescents: standards of medical care in diabetes-2022. Diabetes Care. 2022;45(Suppl1):S208–S231. doi:10.2337/dc22-S014
  • Hallal PC, Victora CG, Azevedo MR, Wells JC. Adolescent physical activity and health: a systematic review. Sports Med. 2006;36(12):1019–1030. doi:10.2165/00007256-200636120-00003
  • Hay J, Maximova K, Durksen A, et al. Physical activity intensity and cardiometabolic risk in youth. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2012;166(11):1022–1029. doi:10.1001/archpediatrics.2012.1028
  • Janssen I, Leblanc AG. Systematic review of the health benefits of physical activity and fitness in school-aged children and youth. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2010;7:40. doi:10.1186/1479-5868-7-40
  • Hardy OT, Czech MP, Corvera S. What causes the insulin resistance underlying obesity? Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes. 2012;19(2):81–87. doi:10.1097/MED.0b013e3283514e13
  • Borghouts LB, Keizer HA. Exercise and insulin sensitivity: a review. Int J Sports Med. 2000;21(1):1–12. doi:10.1055/s-2000-8847
  • Slaght JL, Wicklow BA, Dart AB, et al. Physical activity and cardiometabolic health in adolescents with type 2 diabetes: a cross-sectional study. BMJ Open Diabetes Res Care. 2021;9(1):e002134. doi:10.1136/bmjdrc-2021-002134
  • Springer SC, Silverstein J, Copeland K, et al. Management of type 2 diabetes mellitus in children and adolescents. Pediatrics. 2013;131(2):e648–64. doi:10.1542/peds.2012-3496
  • Yoo H, Suneja U. Pediatric Obesity Nutritional Guidelines. StatPearls; 2022.
  • Gidding SS, Dennison BA, Birch LL, et al. Dietary recommendations for children and adolescents: a guide for practitioners. Pediatrics. 2006;117(2):544–559. doi:10.1542/peds.2005-2374
  • Reinehr T, Kiess W, Kapellen T, Andler W. Insulin sensitivity among obese children and adolescents, according to degree of weight loss. Pediatrics. 2004;114(6):1569–1573. doi:10.1542/peds.2003-0649-F
  • Gummesson A, Nyman E, Knutsson M, Karpefors M. Effect of weight reduction on glycated haemoglobin in weight loss trials in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2017;19(9):1295–1305. doi:10.1111/dom.12971
  • Catalan V, Aviles-Olmos I, Rodriguez A, et al. Time to consider the “exposome hypothesis” in the development of the obesity pandemic. Nutrients. 2022;14(8):1597. doi:10.3390/nu14081597
  • Aller E, Mariman ECM, Bouwman FG, van Baak MA. Genetic predictors of >/=5% weight loss by multidisciplinary advice to severely obese subjects. J Nutrigenet Nutrigenomics. 2017;10(1–2):32–42. doi:10.1159/000469662
  • Lamiquiz-Moneo I, Mateo-Gallego R, Bea AM, et al. Genetic predictors of weight loss in overweight and obese subjects. Sci Rep. 2019;9(1):10770. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-47283-5
  • O’Connor EA, Evans CV, Burda BU, Walsh ES, Eder M, Lozano P. Screening for obesity and intervention for weight management in children and adolescents: evidence report and systematic review for the US preventive services task force. JAMA. 2017;317(23):2427–2444. doi:10.1001/jama.2017.0332
  • Janicke DM, Steele RG, Gayes LA, et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis of comprehensive behavioral family lifestyle interventions addressing pediatric obesity. J Pediatr Psychol. 2014;39(8):809–825. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsu023
  • Reinehr T, Widhalm K, l’Allemand D, et al. Two-year follow-up in 21,784 overweight children and adolescents with lifestyle intervention. Obesity. 2009;17(6):1196–1199. doi:10.1038/oby.2009.17
  • Kumar S, King EC, Christison AL. Health outcomes of youth in clinical pediatric weight management programs in POWER. J Pediatr. 2019;208:57–65 e4. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2018.12.049
  • Tucker JM, Stratbucker W, King EC, et al. Characteristics of paediatric weight management in the United States: associations with program retention and BMI outcomes in the paediatric obesity weight evaluation registry (POWER). Pediatr Obes. 2022;17(2):e12848. doi:10.1111/ijpo.12848
  • Berkowitz RI, Marcus MD, Anderson BJ, et al. Adherence to a lifestyle program for youth with type 2 diabetes and its association with treatment outcome in the TODAY clinical trial. Pediatr Diabetes. 2018;19(2):191–198. doi:10.1111/pedi.12555
  • Smith SM, Sumar B, Dixon KA. Musculoskeletal pain in overweight and obese children. Int J Obes. 2014;38(1):11–15. doi:10.1038/ijo.2013.187
  • Fainardi V, Passadore L, Labate M, Pisi G, Esposito S. An overview of the obese-asthma phenotype in children. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022;19(2):636. doi:10.3390/ijerph19020636
  • Cediel G, Pacheco-Acosta J, CastiUo-Durdn C. Vitamin D deficiency in pediatric clinical practice. Deficiencia de vitamina D en la practica clinica pediatrica. Arch Argent Pediatr. 2018;116(1):e75–e81. doi:10.5546/aap.2018.eng.e75
  • Sluggett L, Wagner SL, Harris RL. Sleep duration and obesity in children and adolescents. Can J Diabetes. 2019;43(2):146–152. doi:10.1016/j.jcjd.2018.06.006
  • Andersen IG, Holm JC, Homoe P. Obstructive sleep apnea in obese children and adolescents, treatment methods and outcome of treatment - A systematic review. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2016;87:190–197. doi:10.1016/j.ijporl.2016.06.017
  • Romero-Corral A, Caples SM, Lopez-Jimenez F, Somers VK. Interactions between obesity and obstructive sleep apnea: implications for treatment. Chest. 2010;137(3):711–719. doi:10.1378/chest.09-0360
  • Pinhas-Hamiel O, Zeitler P. Barriers to the treatment of adolescent type 2 diabetes--a survey of provider perceptions. Pediatr Diabetes. 2003;4(1):24–28. doi:10.1034/j.1399-5448.2003.00027.x
  • Lee V. The experiences and views of children with type 2 diabetes and their families. Diabetes Care Child Young People. 2020;10:165.
  • Gately PJ, Cooke CB, Barth JH, Bewick BM, Radley D, Hill AJ. Children’s residential weight-loss programs can work: a prospective cohort study of short-term outcomes for overweight and obese children. Pediatrics. 2005;116(1):73–77. doi:10.1542/peds.2004-0397
  • Fonseca H, Palmeira AL, Martins S, Ferreira PD. Short- and medium-term impact of a residential weight-loss camp for overweight adolescents. Int J Adolesc Med Health. 2014;26(1):33–38. doi:10.1515/ijamh-2012-0107
  • Vlaev I, Taylor MJ, Taylor D, et al. Testing a multicomponent lifestyle intervention for combating childhood obesity. BMC Public Health. 2021;21(1):824. doi:10.1186/s12889-021-10838-1
  • Evans EW, Wing RR, Pierre DF, Howie WC, Brinker M, Jelalian E. Testing the effect of summer camp on excess summer weight gain in youth from low-income households: a randomized controlled trial. BMC Public Health. 2020;20(1):1732. doi:10.1186/s12889-020-09806-y
  • Kouvari M, Karipidou M, Tsiampalis T, et al. Digital health interventions for weight management in children and adolescents: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Med Internet Res. 2022;24(2):e30675. doi:10.2196/30675
  • Likhitweerawong N, Boonchooduang N, Kittisakmontri K, Chonchaiya W, Louthrenoo O. Effectiveness of mobile application on changing weight, healthy eating habits, and quality of life in children and adolescents with obesity: a randomized controlled trial. BMC Pediatr. 2021;21(1):499. doi:10.1186/s12887-021-02980-x
  • Lei S, Inojosa JRM, Kumar S, et al. Effectiveness of a weight loss program using digital health in adolescents and preadolescents. Child Obes. 2021;17(5):311–321. doi:10.1089/chi.2020.0317
  • Alotaibi M, Alnajjar F, Cappuccio M, Khalid S, Alhmiedat T, Mubin O. Efficacy of emerging technologies to manage childhood obesity. Diabetes Metab Syndr Obes. 2022;15:1227–1244. doi:10.2147/DMSO.S357176
  • Yang HJ, Kang JH, Kim OH, et al. Interventions for preventing childhood obesity with smartphones and wearable device: a protocol for a non-randomized controlled trial. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2017;14(2):184. doi:10.3390/ijerph14020184
  • Mohammed Nawi A, Che Jamaludin FI. Effect of internet-based intervention on obesity among adolescents in Kuala Lumpur: a school-based cluster randomised trial. Malays J Med Sci. 2015;22(4):47–56.
  • Ercelik ZE, Caglar S. Effectiveness of active video games in overweight and obese adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2022;27(2):98–104. doi:10.6065/apem.2244036.018
  • Cummings C, Crochiere R, Lansing AH, Patel R, Stanger C, Digital Health A. Program targeting physical activity among adolescents with overweight or obesity: open trial. JMIR Pediatr Parent. 2022;5(1):e32420. doi:10.2196/32420
  • Kelly AS. Enhancing weight loss with financial incentives in teens with severe obesity. NIH. Available from: https://grantome.com/grant/NIH/R01-DK113631-04. Accessed February 9, 2023.
  • Jebeile H, Gow ML, Lister NB, et al. Intermittent energy restriction is a feasible, effective, and acceptable intervention to treat adolescents with obesity. J Nutr. 2019;149(7):1189–1197. doi:10.1093/jn/nxz049
  • Liese AD, Ma X, Reid L, et al. Health care access and glycemic control in youth and young adults with type 1 and type 2 diabetes in South Carolina. Pediatr Diabetes. 2019;20(3):321–329. doi:10.1111/pedi.12822
  • Lu H, Holt JB, Cheng YJ, Zhang X, Onufrak S, Croft JB. Population-based geographic access to endocrinologists in the United States, 2012. BMC Health Serv Res. 2015;15:541. doi:10.1186/s12913-015-1185-5
  • Lee JM, Davis MM, Menon RK, Freed GL. Geographic distribution of childhood diabetes and obesity relative to the supply of pediatric endocrinologists in the United States. J Pediatr. 2008;152(3):331–336. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2007.08.037
  • Skelton JA, Goff DC, Ip E, Beech BM. Attrition in a multidisciplinary pediatric weight management clinic. Child Obes. 2011;7(3):185–193. doi:10.1089/chi.2011.0010
  • DeSilva S, Vaidya SS. The application of telemedicine to pediatric obesity: lessons from the past decade. Telemed J E Health. 2021;27(2):159–166. doi:10.1089/tmj.2019.0314
  • Whitley A, Yahia N. Efficacy of clinic-based telehealth vs. face-to-face interventions for obesity treatment in children and adolescents in the United States and Canada: a systematic review. Child Obes. 2021;17(5):299–310. doi:10.1089/chi.2020.0347
  • Yin W, Liu Y, Hu H, Sun J, Liu Y, Wang Z. Telemedicine management of type 2 diabetes mellitus in obese and overweight young and middle-aged patients during COVID-19 outbreak: a single-center, prospective, randomized control study. PLoS One. 2022;17(9):e0275251. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0275251
  • Hood KK, Beavers DP, Yi-Frazier J, et al. Psychosocial burden and glycemic control during the first 6 years of diabetes: results from the SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth study. J Adolesc Health. 2014;55(4):498–504. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2014.03.011
  • Van Buren DJ, Wilfley DE, Marcus MD, et al. Depressive symptoms and glycemic control in youth with type 2 diabetes participating in the TODAY clinical trial. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2018;135:85–87. doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2017.11.008
  • Semenkovich K, Brown ME, Svrakic DM, Lustman PJ. Depression in type 2 diabetes mellitus: prevalence, impact, and treatment. Drugs. 2015;75(6):577–587. doi:10.1007/s40265-015-0347-4
  • Serretti A, Mandelli L. Antidepressants and body weight: a comprehensive review and meta-analysis. J Clin Psychiatry. 2010;71(10):1259–1272. doi:10.4088/JCP.09r05346blu
  • Whalen DJ, Belden AC, Tillman R, Barch DM, Luby JL. Early adversity, psychopathology, and latent class profiles of global physical health from preschool through early adolescence. Psychosom Med. 2016;78(9):1008–1018. doi:10.1097/PSY.0000000000000398
  • Hilliard ME, Powell PW, Anderson BJ. Evidence-based behavioral interventions to promote diabetes management in children, adolescents, and families. Am Psychol. 2016;71(7):590–601. doi:10.1037/a0040359
  • Jaser SS. Family interaction in pediatric diabetes. Curr Diab Rep. 2011;11(6):480–485. doi:10.1007/s11892-011-0222-y
  • Oude Luttikhuis H, Baur L, Jansen H, et al. Interventions for treating obesity in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009;(1):CD001872. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001872.pub2
  • Bennich BB, Roder ME, Overgaard D, et al. Supportive and non-supportive interactions in families with a type 2 diabetes patient: an integrative review. Diabetol Metab Syndr. 2017;9:57. doi:10.1186/s13098-017-0256-7
  • McDonagh MS, Selph S, Ozpinar A, Foley C. Systematic review of the benefits and risks of metformin in treating obesity in children aged 18 years and younger. JAMA Pediatr. 2014;168(2):178–184. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2013.4200
  • Kelly AS, Auerbach P, Barrientos-Perez M, et al. A randomized, controlled trial of liraglutide for adolescents with obesity. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(22):2117–2128. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1916038
  • Group TS, Zeitler P, Hirst K, et al. A clinical trial to maintain glycemic control in youth with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2012;366(24):2247–2256. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1109333
  • Borzutzky C, King E, Fox CK, et al. Trends in prescribing anti-obesity pharmacotherapy for paediatric weight management: data from the POWER Work Group. Pediatr Obes. 2021;16(1):e12701. doi:10.1111/ijpo.12701
  • Ard J, Fitch A, Fruh S, Herman L. Weight loss and maintenance related to the mechanism of action of glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonists. Adv Ther. 2021;38(6):2821–2839. doi:10.1007/s12325-021-01710-0
  • Chadda KR, Cheng TS, Ong KK. GLP-1 agonists for obesity and type 2 diabetes in children: systematic review and meta-analysis. Obes Rev. 2021;22(6):e13177. doi:10.1111/obr.13177
  • Tamborlane WV, Barrientos-Perez M, Fainberg U, et al. Liraglutide in children and adolescents with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2019;381(7):637–646. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1903822
  • Kyriakidou A, Kyriazou AV, Koufakis T, et al. Clinical and genetic predictors of glycemic control and weight loss response to liraglutide in patients with type 2 diabetes. J Pers Med. 2022;12(3):424. doi:10.3390/jpm12030424
  • Ryan PM, Seltzer S, Hayward NE, Rodriguez DA, Sless RT, Hawkes CP. Safety and efficacy of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists in children and adolescents with obesity: a meta-analysis. J Pediatr. 2021;236:137–147 e13. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2021.05.009
  • Iqbal J, Wu HX, Hu N, et al. Effect of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists on body weight in adults with obesity without diabetes mellitus-a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized control trials. Obes Rev. 2022;23(6):e13435. doi:10.1111/obr.13435
  • Weghuber D, Barrett T, Barrientos-Perez M, et al. Once-weekly semaglutide in adolescents with obesity. N Engl J Med. 2022;387:2245–2257. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2208601
  • Jastreboff AM, Aronne LJ, Ahmad NN, et al. Tirzepatide once weekly for the treatment of obesity. N Engl J Med. 2022;387(3):205–216. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2206038
  • Russell-Jones D, Khan R. Insulin-associated weight gain in diabetes--causes, effects and coping strategies. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2007;9(6):799–812. doi:10.1111/j.1463-1326.2006.00686.x
  • Brown A, Guess N, Dornhorst A, Taheri S, Frost G. Insulin-associated weight gain in obese type 2 diabetes mellitus patients: what can be done? Diabetes Obes Metab. 2017;19(12):1655–1668. doi:10.1111/dom.13009
  • Eliasson B, Gudbjornsdottir S, Cederholm J, Liang Y, Vercruysse F, Smith U. Weight loss and metabolic effects of topiramate in overweight and obese type 2 diabetic patients: randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Int J Obes. 2007;31(7):1140–1147. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0803548
  • Berman C, Naguib M, Hegedus E, Vidmar AP. Topiramate for weight management in children with severe obesity. Child Obes. 2022. doi:10.1089/chi.2022.0062
  • Fox CK, Marlatt KL, Rudser KD, Kelly AS. Topiramate for weight reduction in adolescents with severe obesity. Clin Pediatr. 2015;54(1):19–24. doi:10.1177/0009922814542481
  • Smith SM, Meyer M, Trinkley KE. Phentermine/topiramate for the treatment of obesity. Ann Pharmacother. 2013;47(3):340–349. doi:10.1345/aph.1R501
  • Ryder JR, Kaizer A, Rudser KD, Gross A, Kelly AS, Fox CK. Effect of phentermine on weight reduction in a pediatric weight management clinic. Int J Obes. 2017;41(1):90–93. doi:10.1038/ijo.2016.185
  • Dhillon S. Phentermine/topiramate: pediatric first approval. Paediatr Drugs. 2022. doi:10.1007/s40272-022-00532-z
  • Kelly AS, Bensignor MO, Hsia DS, et al. Phentermine/topiramate for the treatment of adolescent obesity. NEJM Evid. 2022;1(6):EVIDoa2200014. doi:10.1056/EVIDoa2200014
  • Guerciolini R. Mode of action of orlistat. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1997;21(Suppl 3):S12–23.
  • Chanoine JP, Hampl S, Jensen C, Boldrin M, Hauptman J. Effect of orlistat on weight and body composition in obese adolescents: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2005;293(23):2873–2883. doi:10.1001/jama.293.23.2873
  • Wilding J, Fernando K, Milne N, et al. SGLT2 inhibitors in type 2 diabetes management: key evidence and implications for clinical practice. Diabetes Ther. 2018;9(5):1757–1773. doi:10.1007/s13300-018-0471-8
  • Bolinder J, Ljunggren O, Kullberg J, et al. Effects of dapagliflozin on body weight, total fat mass, and regional adipose tissue distribution in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus with inadequate glycemic control on metformin. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2012;97(3):1020–1031. doi:10.1210/jc.2011-2260
  • Liu XY, Zhang N, Chen R, Zhao JG, Yu P. Efficacy and safety of sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors in type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials for 1 to 2 years. J Diabetes Complications. 2015;29(8):1295–1303. doi:10.1016/j.jdiacomp.2015.07.011
  • Tamborlane WV, Laffel LM, Shehadeh N, et al. Efficacy and safety of dapagliflozin in children and young adults with type 2 diabetes: a prospective, multicentre, randomised, parallel group, phase 3 study. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2022;10(5):341–350. doi:10.1016/S2213-8587(22)00052-3
  • Pratt JSA, Browne A, Browne NT, et al. ASMBS pediatric metabolic and bariatric surgery guidelines, 2018. Surg Obes Relat Dis. 2018;14(7):882–901. doi:10.1016/j.soard.2018.03.019
  • Armstrong SC, Bolling CF, Michalsky MP, Reichard KW; Section on Obesity SOS. Pediatric metabolic and bariatric surgery: evidence, barriers, and best practices. Pediatrics. 2019;144(6). doi:10.1542/peds.2019-3223
  • Inge TH, Courcoulas AP, Jenkins TM, et al. Weight loss and health status 3 years after bariatric surgery in adolescents. N Engl J Med. 2016;374(2):113–123. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1506699
  • Inge TH, Laffel LM, Jenkins TM, et al. Comparison of surgical and medical therapy for type 2 diabetes in severely obese adolescents. JAMA Pediatr. 2018;172(5):452–460. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2017.5763
  • Campbell EG, Alasmar A, Lawrence R, et al. Barriers to metabolic bariatric surgery in adolescents: results of a qualitative study. Surg Obes Relat Dis. 2022;18(6):794–802. doi:10.1016/j.soard.2022.03.010
  • Nunez Lopez O, Jupiter DC, Bohanon FJ, Radhakrishnan RS, Bowen-Jallow KA. Health disparities in adolescent bariatric surgery: nationwide outcomes and utilization. J Adolesc Health. 2017;61(5):649–656. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2017.05.028
  • Steinberger AE, Nickel KB, Keller M, et al. National trends in pediatric metabolic and bariatric surgery: 2010–2017. Pediatrics. 2022;150. doi:10.1542/peds.2022-057316
  • Fittipaldi-Fernandez RJ, Guedes MR, Galvao Neto MP, Klein M, Diestel CF. Efficacy of intragastric balloon treatment for adolescent obesity. Obes Surg. 2017;27(10):2546–2551. doi:10.1007/s11695-017-2699-1
  • De Peppo F, Caccamo R, Adorisio O, et al. The Obalon swallowable intragastric balloon in pediatric and adolescent morbid obesity. Endosc Int Open. 2017;5(1):E59–E63. doi:10.1055/s-0042-120413
  • Swei EC, Sullivan SA. Aspiration therapy. Tech Vasc Interv Radiol. 2020;23(1):100659. doi:10.1016/j.tvir.2020.100659