The Role of PPARγ Gene Polymorphisms, Gut Microbiota in Type 2 Diabetes: Current Progress and Future Prospects

References

• Cheng HS, Tan WR, Low ZS, Marvalim C, Lee JYH, Tan NS. Exploration and Development of PPAR Modulators in Health and Disease: an Update of Clinical Evidence. Int J Mol Sci. 2019;20(20):5055. doi:10.3390/ijms20205055
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turnbaugh PJ, Ley RE, Mahowald MA, Magrini V, Mardis ER, Gordon JI. An obesity-associated gut microbiome with increased capacity for energy harvest. Nature. 2006;444(7122):1027–1031. doi:10.1038/nature05414
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Altshuler D, Daly MJ, Lander ES. Genetic mapping in human disease. Science. 2008;322(5903):881–888. doi:10.1126/science.1156409
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mahajan A, Taliun D, Thurner M, et al. Fine-mapping type 2 diabetes loci to single-variant resolution using high-density imputation and islet-specific epigenome maps. Nat Genet. 2018;50(11):1505–1513. doi:10.1038/s41588-018-0241-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kahn SE, Cooper ME, Del Prato S. Pathophysiology and treatment of type 2 diabetes: perspectives on the past, present, and future. Lancet. 2014;383(9922):1068–1083. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(13)62154-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gouda HN, Sagoo GS, Harding AH, Yates J, Sandhu MS, Higgins JP. The association between the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma2 (PPARG2) Pro12Ala gene variant and type 2 diabetes mellitus: a HuGE review and meta-analysis. Am J Epidemiol. 2010;171(6):645–655. doi:10.1093/aje/kwp450
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kang ES, Park SY, Kim HJ, et al. The influence of adiponectin gene polymorphism on the rosiglitazone response in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2005;28(5):1139–1144. doi:10.2337/diacare.28.5.1139
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cani PD, Neyrinck AM, Fava F, et al. Selective increases of bifidobacteria in gut microflora improve high-fat-diet-induced diabetes in mice through a mechanism associated with endotoxaemia. Diabetologia. 2007;50(11):2374–2383. doi:10.1007/s00125-007-0791-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moya-Pérez A, Neef A, Sanz Y. Bifidobacterium pseudocatenulatum CECT 7765 Reduces Obesity-Associated Inflammation by Restoring the Lymphocyte-Macrophage Balance and Gut Microbiota Structure in High-Fat Diet-Fed Mice. PLoS One. 2015;10(7):e0126976. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0126976
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Remely M, Aumueller E, Merold C, et al. Effects of short chain fatty acid producing bacteria on epigenetic regulation of FFAR3 in type 2 diabetes and obesity. Gene. 2014;537(1):85–92. doi:10.1016/j.gene.2013.11.081
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Qin J, Li Y, Cai Z, et al. A metagenome-wide association study of gut microbiota in type 2 diabetes. Nature. 2012;490(7418):55–60. doi:10.1038/nature11450
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dubois V, Eeckhoute J, Lefebvre P, Staels B. Distinct but complementary contributions of PPAR isotypes to energy homeostasis. J Clin Invest. 2017;127(4):1202–1214. doi:10.1172/JCI88894
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larsen N, Vogensen FK, van den Berg FW, et al. Gut microbiota in human adults with type 2 diabetes differs from non-diabetic adults. PLoS One. 2010;5(2):e9085. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0009085
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ricote M, Li AC, Willson TM, Kelly CJ, Glass CK. The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma is a negative regulator of macrophage activation. Nature. 1998;391(6662):79–82. doi:10.1038/34178
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Altshuler D, Hirschhorn JN, Klannemark M, et al. The common PPARgamma Pro12Ala polymorphism is associated with decreased risk of type 2 diabetes. Nat Genet. 2000;26(1):76–80. doi:10.1038/79216
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Odegaard JI, Chawla A. Mechanisms of macrophage activation in obesity-induced insulin resistance. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab. 2008;4(11):619–626. doi:10.1038/ncpendmet0976
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tikhanovich I, Zhao J, Olson J, et al. Protein arginine methyltransferase 1 modulates innate immune responses through regulation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ-dependent macrophage differentiation. J Biol Chem. 2017;292(17):6882–6894. doi:10.1074/jbc.M117.778761
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karlsson FH, Tremaroli V, Nookaew I, et al. Gut metagenome in European women with normal, impaired and diabetic glucose control. Nature. 2013;498(7452):99–103. doi:10.1038/nature12198
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang D, Liu J, Zhong L, et al. Potential benefits of metformin and pioglitazone combination therapy via gut microbiota and metabolites in high-fat diet-fed mice. Front Pharmacol. 2022;11(13):1004617. doi:10.3389/fphar.2022.1004617
   Google Scholar
• Kootte RS, Vrieze A, Holleman F, et al. The therapeutic potential of manipulating gut microbiota in obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2012;14(2):112–120. doi:10.1111/j.1463-1326.2011.01483.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vrieze A, Van Nood E, Holleman F, et al. Transfer of intestinal microbiota from lean donors increases insulin sensitivity in individuals with metabolic syndrome. Gastroenterology. 2012;143(4):913–6.e7. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2012.06.031
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jay MA, Ren J. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) in metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Curr Diabetes Rev. 2007;3(1):33–39. doi:10.2174/157339907779802067
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tilg H, Zmora N, Adolph TE, Elinav E. The intestinal microbiota fuelling metabolic inflammation. Nat Rev Immunol. 2020;20(1):40–54. doi:10.1038/s41577-019-0198-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soccio RE, Chen ER, Lazar MA. Thiazolidinediones and the promise of insulin sensitization in type 2 diabetes. Cell Metab. 2014;20(4):573–591. doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2014.08.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tontonoz P, Spiegelman BM. Fat and beyond: the diverse biology of PPARgamma. Annu Rev Biochem. 2008;77:289–312. doi:10.1146/annurev.biochem.77.061307.091829
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evans RM, Barish GD, Wang YX. PPARs and the complex journey to obesity. Nat Med. 2004;10(4):355–361. doi:10.1038/nm1025
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sender R, Fuchs S, Milo R. Revised Estimates for the Number of Human and Bacteria Cells in the Body. PLoS Biol. 2016;14(8):e1002533. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1002533
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicholson JK, Holmes E, Kinross J, et al. Host-gut microbiota metabolic interactions. Science. 2012;336(6086):1262–1267.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tilg H, Adolph TE, Gerner RR, Moschen AR. The Intestinal Microbiota in Colorectal Cancer. Cancer Cell. 2018;33(6):954–964.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wahlström A, Sayin SI, Marschall HU, Bäckhed F. Intestinal Crosstalk between Bile Acids and Microbiota and Its Impact on Host Metabolism. Cell Metab. 2016;24(1):41–50.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chawla A, Schwarz EJ, Dimaculangan DD, Lazar MA. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) gamma: adipose-predominant expression and induction early in adipocyte differentiation. Endocrinology. 1994;135(2):798–800. doi:10.1210/endo.135.2.8033830
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moya-Camarena SY, Vanden Heuvel JP, Blanchard SG, Leesnitzer LA, Belury MA. Conjugated linoleic acid is a potent naturally occurring ligand and activator of PPARalpha. J Lipid Res. 1999;40(8):1426–1433. doi:10.1016/S0022-2275(20)33384-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosen ED, Spiegelman BM. PPARgamma: a nuclear regulator of metabolism, differentiation, and cell growth. J Biol Chem. 2001;276(41):37731–37734. doi:10.1074/jbc.R100034200
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yamauchi T, Kamon J, Waki H, et al. The mechanisms by which both heterozygous peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARgamma) deficiency and PPARgamma agonist improve insulin resistance. J Biol Chem. 2001;276(44):41245–41254.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Unger RH, Zhou YT. Lipotoxicity of beta-cells in obesity and in other causes of fatty acid spillover. Diabetes. 2001;50(Suppl 1):S118–21. doi:10.2337/diabetes.50.2007.S118
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Glass CK, Olefsky JM. Inflammation and lipid signaling in the etiology of insulin resistance. Cell Metab. 2012;15(5):635–645. doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2012.04.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deeb SS, Fajas L, Nemoto M, et al. A Pro12Ala substitution in PPARgamma2 associated with decreased receptor activity, lower body mass index and improved insulin sensitivity. Nat Genet. 1998;20(3):284–287. doi:10.1038/3099
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stumvoll M, Häring H. The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma2 Pro12Ala polymorphism. Diabetes. 2002;51(8):2341–2347. doi:10.2337/diabetes.51.8.2341
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hsueh WA, Bruemmer D. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma: implications for cardiovascular disease. Hypertension. 2004;43(2):297–305. doi:10.1161/01.HYP.0000113626.76571.5b
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu W, Xu J, Sun B, et al. The effect of PPARG gene polymorphisms on the risk of coronary heart disease: a meta-analysis. Mol Biol Rep. 2013;40(2):875–884. doi:10.1007/s11033-012-2128-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clemente JC, Ursell LK, Parfrey LW, Knight R. The impact of the gut microbiota on human health: an integrative view. Cell. 2012;148(6):1258–1270. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2012.01.035
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cani PD, Bibiloni R, Knauf C, et al. Changes in gut microbiota control metabolic endotoxemia-induced inflammation in high-fat diet-induced obesity and diabetes in mice. Diabetes. 2008;57(6):1470–1481. doi:10.2337/db07-1403
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flint HJ, Scott KP, Duncan SH, Louis P, Forano E. Microbial degradation of complex carbohydrates in the gut. Gut Microbes. 2012;3(4):289–306. doi:10.4161/gmic.19897
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rivière A, Selak M, Lantin D, Leroy F, De Vuyst L. Bifidobacteria and Butyrate-Producing Colon Bacteria: importance and Strategies for Their Stimulation in the Human Gut. Front Microbiol. 2016;28(7):979.
   Google Scholar
• Bäckhed F, Ding H, Wang T, Hooper LV, Koh GY. The gut microbiota as an environmental factor that regulates fat storage. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004;101(44):15718–15723. doi:10.1073/pnas.0407076101
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frost RJ, Olson EN. Control of glucose homeostasis and insulin sensitivity by the Let-7 family of microRNAs. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2011;108(52):21075–21080. doi:10.1073/pnas.1118922109
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bassaganya-Riera J, Reynolds K, Martino-Catt S, et al. Activation of PPAR gamma and delta by conjugated linoleic acid mediates protection from experimental inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterology. 2004;127(3):777–791. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2004.06.049
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abaj F, Sotoudeh G, Karimi E, Rafiee M, Koohdani F. Interaction between the dietary indices and PPAR-γ Pro12Ala gene variants on cardiovascular risk factors in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Int J Clin Pract. 2021;75(8):e14307. doi:10.1111/ijcp.14307
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gao Z, Yin J, Zhang J, et al. Butyrate improves insulin sensitivity and increases energy expenditure in mice. Diabetes. 2009;58(7):1509–1517. doi:10.2337/db08-1637
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cani PD, Amar J, Iglesias MA, et al. Metabolic endotoxemia initiates obesity and insulin resistance. Diabetes. 2007;56(7):1761–1772. doi:10.2337/db06-1491
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watanabe M, Houten SM, Mataki C, et al. Bile acids induce energy expenditure by promoting intracellular thyroid hormone activation. Nature. 2006;439(7075):484–489. doi:10.1038/nature04330
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar