804
Views
17
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Acute Hematogenous Osteomyelitis in Children: Clinical Presentation and Management

Pages 4459-4473 | Published online: 14 Dec 2020

References

  • Arnold SR, Elias D, Buckingham SC, et al. Changing patterns of acute hematogenous osteomyelitis and septic arthritis: emergence of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J Pediatr Orthop. 2006;26(6):703–708. doi:10.1097/01.bpo.0000242431.91489.b417065930
  • Guitierrez K. Osteomeylitis In: Long SS, Pickering LK, Prober CG, editors. Principles and Practice of Pediatric Infectious Diseases. New York: Elsevier Saunders 2012:469–477.
  • Krogstad P. Osteomyelitis In: Cherry JD, Harrison GJ, Kaplan SL, Steinbach WJ, Hotez PJ, editors. Feigin and Cherry’s Textbook of Pediatric Infectious Diseases. Vol. 1 8 Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier;2019:516–529.
  • McNeil JC, Vallejo JG, Hulten KG, Kaplan SL. Osteoarticular infections following open or penetrating trauma in children in the post-community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus era: the impact of Enterobacter cloacae. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2018;37(12):1204–1210. doi:10.1097/INF.000000000000199129570590
  • Joseph M, Sommer LM, Vallejo JG, McNeil JC The spectrum of chronic osteomyelitis in children. Infectious Diseases Society of America IDWeek Annual Meeting 2020; 2020; Philadelphia, PA (Virtual).
  • McNeil JC, Forbes AR, Vallejo JG, et al. Role of operative or interventional radiology-guided cultures for osteomyelitis. Pediatrics. 2016;137:e20154616. doi:10.1542/peds.2015-461627244827
  • Peltola H, Unkila-Kallio L, Kallio MJ. Simplified treatment of acute staphylococcal osteomyelitis of childhood. The Finnish Study Group. Pediatrics. 1997;99(6):846–850. doi:10.1542/peds.99.6.8469190554
  • McNeil JC, Sommer LM, Boyle M, et al. Cefazolin inoculum effect and methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus osteoarticular infections in children. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2020;64(9):e00703–20. doi:10.1128/AAC.00703-2032660989
  • Trueta J. The three types of acute haematogenous osteomyelitis. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1959;41–B:671–680.
  • Hobo T. Zur pathogenese der akuten haematogenen osteomyelitis. Acta Sch Med Univ Kioto. 1921;4:1–29.
  • Stephen RF, Benson MK, Nade S. Misconceptions about childhood acute osteomyelitis. J Child Orthop. 2012;6(5):353–356. doi:10.1007/s11832-012-0435-x24082950
  • Speers DJ, Nade SM. Ultrastructural studies of adherence of Staphylococcus aureus in experimental acute hematogenous osteomyelitis. Infect Immun. 1985;49(2):443–446. doi:10.1128/IAI.49.2.443-446.19854018875
  • Branson JN, Vallejo JG, Flores AR, et al. The contemporary microbiology and rates of concomitant osteomyelitis in acute septic arthritis. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2017;36:267–273. doi:10.1097/INF.000000000000141727870814
  • Peltola H, Paakkonen M, Kallio P, Kallio MJ. Osteomyelitis-Septic Arthritis Study G. Short- versus long-term antimicrobial treatment for acute hematogenous osteomyelitis of childhood: prospective, randomized trial on 131 culture-positive cases. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2010;29(12):1123–1128. doi:10.1097/INF.0b013e3181f55a8920842069
  • Calvo C, Nunez E, Camacho M, et al. Epidemiology and management of acute, uncomplicated septic arthritis and Osteomyelitis: Spanish Multicenter Study. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2016;35(12):1288–1293. doi:10.1097/INF.000000000000130927455444
  • Dich VQ, Nelson JD, Haltalin KC. Osteomyelitis in infants and children. A review of 163 cases. Am J Dis Child. 1975;129(11):1273–1278. doi:10.1001/archpedi.1975.021204800070041190158
  • Gonzalez BE, Martinez-Aguilar G, Hulten KG, et al. Severe Staphylococcal sepsis in adolescents in the era of community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Pediatrics. 2005;115(3):642–648. doi:10.1542/peds.2004-230015741366
  • McNeil JC, Vallejo JG, Kok EY, Sommer LM, Hulten KG, Kaplan SL. Clinical and microbiologic variables predictive of orthopedic complications following S. aureus acute hematogenous osteoarticular infections in children. Clin Infect Dis. 2019;69(11):1955–1961. doi:10.1093/cid/ciz10930753346
  • Unkila-Kallio L, Kallio MJ, Eskola J, Peltola H. Serum C-reactive protein, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and white blood cell count in acute hematogenous osteomyelitis of children. Pediatrics. 1994;93(1):59–62.8265325
  • Unkila-Kallio L, Kallio MJ, Peltola H. The usefulness of C-reactive protein levels in the identification of concurrent septic arthritis in children who have acute hematogenous osteomyelitis. A comparison with the usefulness of the erythrocyte sedimentation rate and the white blood-cell count. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1994;76(6):848–853. doi:10.2106/00004623-199406000-000088200891
  • Saavedra-Lozano J, Falup-Pecurariu O, Faust SN, et al. Bone and joint infections. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2017;36(8):788–799. doi:10.1097/INF.000000000000163528708801
  • Section J, Gibbons SD, Barton T, Greenberg DE, Jo CH, Copley LA. Microbiological culture methods for pediatric musculoskeletal infection: a guideline for optimal use. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2015;97(6):441–449. doi:10.2106/JBJS.N.0047725788299
  • Zhorne DJ, Altobelli ME, Cruz AT. Impact of antibiotic pretreatment on bone biopsy yield for children with acute hematogenous osteomyelitis. Hosp Pediatr. 2015;5(6):337–341. doi:10.1542/hpeds.2014-011426034165
  • Yagupsky P, Bar-Ziv Y, Howard CB, Dagan R. Epidemiology, etiology, and clinical features of septic arthritis in children younger than 24 months. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1995;149(5):537–540. doi:10.1001/archpedi.1995.021701800670107735407
  • Brook I. Anaerobic osteomyelitis in children. Pediatr Infect Dis. 1986;5(5):550–556. doi:10.1097/00006454-198609000-000123763419
  • Vallejo JG, McNeil JC, Hulten KG, Sommer LM, Dunn JJ, Kaplan SL. Invasive haemophilus influenzae disease at Texas children’s hospital, 2011 to 2018. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2019;38(9):900–905. doi:10.1097/INF.000000000000238331107422
  • Rush PJ, Shore A, Inman R, Gold R, Jadavji T, Laski B. Arthritis associated with Haemophilus influenzae meningitis: septic or reactive? J Pediatr. 1986;109(3):412–415. doi:10.1016/S0022-3476(86)80109-33489088
  • Edwards MS, Baker CJ, Wagner ML, Taber LH, Barrett FF. An etiologic shift in infantile osteomyelitis: the emergence of the group B streptococcus. J Pediatr. 1978;93(4):578–583. doi:10.1016/S0022-3476(78)80891-9359771
  • Searns JB, Robinson CC, Wei Q, et al. Validation of a novel molecular diagnostic panel for pediatric musculoskeletal infections: integration of the cepheid xpert MRSA/SA SSTI and laboratory-developed real-time PCR assays for clindamycin resistance genes and kingella kingae detection. J Microbiol Methods. 2019;156:60–67. doi:10.1016/j.mimet.2018.12.00430527965
  • Ilharreborde B, Bidet P, Lorrot M, et al. New real-time PCR-based method for Kingella kingae DNA detection: application to samples collected from 89 children with acute arthritis. J Clin Microbiol. 2009;47(6):1837–1841. doi:10.1128/JCM.00144-0919369442
  • Ferroni A, Al Khoury H, Dana C, et al. Prospective survey of acute osteoarticular infections in a French paediatric orthopedic surgery unit. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2013;19(9):822–828. doi:10.1111/clm.1203123957786
  • Browne LP, Mason EO, Kaplan SL, Cassady CI, Krishnamurthy R, Guillerman RP. Optimal imaging strategy for community-acquired Staphylococcus aureus musculoskeletal infections in children. Pediatr Radiol. 2008;38(8):841–847. doi:10.1007/s00247-008-0888-818560822
  • Bocchini CE, Hulten KG, Mason EO Jr, Gonzalez BE, Hammerman WA, Kaplan SL. Panton-valentine leukocidin genes are associated with enhanced inflammatory response and local disease in acute hematogenous Staphylococcus aureus osteomyelitis in children. Pediatrics. 2006;117(2):433–440. doi:10.1542/peds.2005-056616452363
  • Gafur OA, Copley LA, Hollmig ST, Browne RH, Thornton LA, Crawford SE. The impact of the current epidemiology of pediatric musculoskeletal infection on evaluation and treatment guidelines. J Pediatr Orthop. 2008;28(7):777–785. doi:10.1097/BPO.0b013e318186eb4b18812907
  • Hawkshead JJ 3rd, Patel NB, Steele RW, Heinrich SD. Comparative severity of pediatric osteomyelitis attributable to methicillin-resistant versus methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus. J Pediatr Orthop. 2009;29(1):85–90. doi:10.1097/BPO.0b013e3181901c3a19098653
  • Gonzalez BE, Teruya J, Mahoney DH Jr, et al. Venous thrombosis associated with staphylococcal osteomyelitis in children. Pediatrics. 2006;117(5):1673–1679. doi:10.1542/peds.2005-200916651323
  • Belthur MV, Birchansky SB, Verdugo AA, et al. Pathologic fractures in children with acute Staphylococcus aureus osteomyelitis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2012;94(1):34–42. doi:10.2106/JBJS.J.01915
  • Kok EY, Vallejo JG, Sommer LM, et al. Association of vancomycin MIC and molecular characteristics with clinical outcomes in methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus acute hematogenous osteoarticular infections in children. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2018;62(5):e00084–18. doi:10.1128/AAC.00084-1829530845
  • Hulten KG, Mason EO, Lamberth LB, Forbes AR, Revell PA, Kaplan SL. Analysis of invasive community-acquired methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus infections during a period of declining CA-MRSA infections at a large children’s hospital. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2018;37(3):235–241. doi:10.1097/INF.000000000000175328859018
  • Miller LG, Daum RS, Creech CB, et al. Clindamycin versus trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole for uncomplicated skin infections. N Engl J Med. 2015;372(12):1093–1103. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa140378925785967
  • Bowen AC, Carapetis JR, Currie BJ, Fowler V Jr, Chambers HF, Tong SYC. Sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim (cotrimoxazole) for skin and soft tissue infections including impetigo, cellulitis, and abscess. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2017;4(4):ofx232. doi:10.1093/ofid/ofx23229255730
  • Boguniewicz J, Rubiano Landinez A, Kaplan SL, Lamb GS. Comparison of musculoskeletal infections due to nontyphoidal salmonella species and Staphylococcus aureus in immunocompetent children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2019;38(10):1020–1024. doi:10.1097/INF.000000000000244031425328
  • Thanni LO. Bacterial osteomyelitis in major sickling haemoglobinopathies: geographic difference in pathogen prevalence. Afr Health Sci. 2006;6(4):236–239.17604513
  • Burnett MW, Bass JW, Cook BA. Etiology of osteomyelitis complicating sickle cell disease. Pediatrics. 1998;101(2):296–297. doi:10.1542/peds.101.2.2969445507
  • Kaplan J, Ikeda S, McNeil JC, Kaplan SL, Vallejo JG. Microbiology of osteoarticular infections in patients with sickle hemoglobinopathies at texas children’s hospital, 2000–2018. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2019;38(12):1251–1253. doi:10.1097/INF.000000000000247831738345
  • Givner LB, Luddy RE, Schwartz AD. Etiology of osteomyelitis in patients with major sickle hemoglobinopathies. J Pediatr. 1981;99(3):411–413. doi:10.1016/S0022-3476(81)80330-77264796
  • Dubnov-Raz G, Ephros M, Garty BZ, et al. Invasive pediatric kingella kingae infections: a nationwide collaborative study. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2010;29(7):639–643. doi:10.1097/INF.0b013e3181d57a6c20182400
  • Juchler C, Spyropoulou V, Wagner N, et al. The contemporary bacteriologic epidemiology of osteoarticular infections in children in Switzerland. J Pediatr. 2018;194:190–196 e191. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2017.11.02529263015
  • Basmaci R, Lorrot M, Bidet P, et al. Comparison of clinical and biologic features of Kingella kingae and Staphylococcus aureus arthritis at initial evaluation. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2011;30(10):902–904. doi:10.1097/INF.0b013e31821fe0f721552181
  • Luegmair M, Chaker M, Ploton C, Berard J. Kingella kingae: osteoarticular infections of the sternum in children: a report of six cases. J Child Orthop. 2008;2(6):443–447. doi:10.1007/s11832-008-0144-719308540
  • Yagupsky P, Dagan R, Howard CW, Einhorn M, Kassis I, Simu A. High prevalence of Kingella kingae in joint fluid from children with septic arthritis revealed by the BACTEC blood culture system. J Clin Microbiol. 1992;30(5):1278–1281. doi:10.1128/JCM.30.5.1278-1281.19921583131
  • Olarte L, Romero J, Barson W, et al. Osteoarticular infections caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae in children in the post-pneumococcal conjugate vaccine era. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2017;36(12):1201–1204. doi:10.1097/INF.000000000000169728723870
  • Hajjaji N, Hocqueloux L, Kerdraon R, Bret L. Bone infection in cat-scratch disease: a review of the literature. J Infect. 2007;54(5):417–421. doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2006.10.04517140668
  • Arisoy ES, Correa AG, Wagner ML, Kaplan SL. Hepatosplenic cat-scratch disease in children: selected clinical features and treatment. Clin Infect Dis. 1999;28(4):778–784. doi:10.1086/51519710825038
  • Landes M, Maor Y, Mercer D, et al. Cat scratch disease presenting as fever of unknown origin is a unique clinical syndrome. Clin Infect Dis. 2019. doi:10.1093/cid/ciz1137
  • Rubin LG, Shin J, Kaur I, Scheuerman O, Levy I, Long SS. Frequency of multifocal disease and pyogenic arthritis of the hip in infants with osteoarticular infection in three neonatal intensive care units. J Pediatr. 2020;227:157–162. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2020.07.05532707046
  • Li J, Echevarria KL, Hughes DW, Cadena JA, Bowling JE, Lewis JS 2nd. Comparison of cefazolin versus oxacillin for treatment of complicated bacteremia caused by methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2014;58(9):5117–5124. doi:10.1128/AAC.02800-1424936596
  • McDanel JS, Perencevich EN, Diekema DJ, et al. Comparative effectiveness of beta-lactams versus vancomycin for treatment of methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infections among 122 hospitals. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;61(3):361–367. doi:10.1093/cid/civ30825900170
  • Yagupsky P. Antibiotic susceptibility of Kingella kingae isolates from children with skeletal system infections. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2012;31(2):212. doi:10.1097/INF.0b013e31824041b8
  • Staphylococcal Infections In: Pickering LK, Baker C, Kimberlin DW, Long SS, editors. Red Book: 2012 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. 29 Elk Grove Village, Il: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2012:653–668.
  • Rybak MJ, Le J, Lodise TP, et al. Therapeutic monitoring of vancomycin for serious methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections: a revised consensus guideline and review by the American society of health-system pharmacists, the infectious diseases society of America, the pediatric infectious diseases society, and the society of infectious diseases pharmacists. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2020;77(11):835–864.32191793
  • McNeil JC, Kok EY, Forbes AR, et al. Healthcare-associated Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia in children: evidence for reverse vancomycin creep and impact of vancomycin trough values on outcome. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2016;35(3):263–268. doi:10.1097/INF.000000000000099126646549
  • Sinclair EA, Yenokyan G, McMunn A, Fadrowski JJ, Milstone AM, Lee CK. Factors associated with acute kidney injury in children receiving vancomycin. Ann Pharmacother. 2014;48(12):1555–1562. doi:10.1177/106002801454918525186624
  • Le J, Ny P, Capparelli E, et al. Pharmacodynamic characteristics of nephrotoxicity associated with vancomycin use in children. J Pediatric Infect Dis Soc. 2015;4(4):e109–e116. doi:10.1093/jpids/piu11026582878
  • McNeil JC, Kaplan SL. Vancomycin therapeutic drug monitoring in children: new recommendations, similar challenges. J Pediatr Pharmacol Ther. 2020;25(6):472–475.32839650
  • McNeil JC, Kaplan SL, Vallejo JG. The influence of the route of antibiotic administration, methicillin-susceptibility, vancomycin duration and serum trough concentration on outcomes of pediatric Staphylococcus aureus bacteremic osteoarticular infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2017;36(6):572–577. doi:10.1097/INF.000000000000150328027279
  • Hahn A, Frenck RW Jr, Allen-Staat M, Zou Y, Vinks AA. Evaluation of target attainment of vancomycin area under the curve in children with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Ther Drug Monit. 2015;37(5):619–625. doi:10.1097/FTD.000000000000019026378371
  • Martinez-Aguilar G, Avalos-Mishaan A, Hulten K, Hammerman W, Mason EO Jr, Kaplan SL. Community-acquired, methicillin-resistant and methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus musculoskeletal infections in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2004;23(8):701–706. doi:10.1097/01.inf.0000133044.79130.2a15295218
  • Kaplan SL, Mason EO Jr, Feigin RD. Clindamycin versus nafcillin or methicillin in the treatment of Staphylococcus aureus osteomyelitis in children. South Med J. 1982;75(2):138–142. doi:10.1097/00007611-198202000-000057036354
  • Al-Zubeidi D, Burnham CA, Hogan PG, Collins R, Hunstad DA, Fritz SA. Molecular epidemiology of recurrent cutaneous methicillin-resistant infections in children. J Pediatric Infect Dis Soc. 2014;3(3):261–264. doi:10.1093/jpids/pit04625844165
  • Chen CJ, Chiu CH, Lin TY, Lee ZL, Yang WE, Huang YC. Experience with linezolid therapy in children with osteoarticular infections. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2007;26(11):985–988. doi:10.1097/INF.0b013e31812e62dc17984803
  • Syriopoulou V, Dailiana Z, Dmitriy N, Utili R, Pathan R, Hamed K. Clinical experience with daptomycin for the treatment of gram-positive infections in children and adolescents. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2016;35(5):511–516. doi:10.1097/INF.000000000000107626849158
  • Erturan G, Holme H, Smith R, Dodds R, Iyer S. Successful use of daptomycin in panton-valentine leucocidin positive Staphylococcus aureus paediatric osteomyelitis. Int J Surg Case Rep. 2012;3(7):238–241. doi:10.1016/j.ijscr.2012.03.01422503914
  • Bradley JS, Arrieta AC, Digtyar VA, et al. Daptomycin for pediatric gram-positive acute hematogenous osteomyelitis. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2020;39(9):814–823.32639465
  • Williams AW, Newman PM, Ocheltree S, Beaty R, Hassoun A. Ceftaroline fosamil use in 2 pediatric patients with invasive methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections. J Pediatr Pharmacol Ther. 2015;20(6):476–480.26766937
  • Blockey NJ, Watson JT. Acute osteomyelitis in children. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1970;52(1):77–87. doi:10.1302/0301-620X.52B1.775198369
  • Krogstad P. Hematogenous osteomyelitis in children: management. Girand HL, McNeil JC In: Baron EL, editor. UpToDate Online. [Web-Based Textbook]. Waltham, MA; 2020 UpToDate. Available from: https://www.uptodate.com/contents/hematogenous-osteomyelitis-in-children-management?search=osteomyelitis%20treatment%20children&source=search_result&selectedTitle=1~150&usage_type=default&display_rank=1. Accessed 917, 2020.
  • McMullan BJ, Andresen D, Blyth CC, et al. Antibiotic duration and timing of the switch from intravenous to oral route for bacterial infections in children: systematic review and guidelines. Lancet Infect Dis. 2016;16(8):e139–e152. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(16)30024-X27321363
  • Zaoutis T, Localio AR, Leckerman K, Saddlemire S, Bertoch D, Keren R. Prolonged intravenous therapy versus early transition to oral antimicrobial therapy for acute osteomyelitis in children. Pediatrics. 2009;123(2):636–642. doi:10.1542/peds.2008-059619171632
  • Keren R, Shah SS, Srivastava R, et al. Comparative effectiveness of intravenous vs oral antibiotics for postdischarge treatment of acute osteomyelitis in children. JAMA Pediatr. 2015;169(2):120–128. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2014.282225506733
  • Barrier A, Williams DJ, Connelly M, Creech CB. Frequency of peripherally inserted central catheter complications in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2012;31(5):519–521. doi:10.1097/INF.0b013e31824571b022189533
  • Ruebner R, Keren R, Coffin S, Chu J, Horn D, Zaoutis TE. Complications of central venous catheters used for the treatment of acute hematogenous osteomyelitis. Pediatrics. 2006;117(4):1210–1215. doi:10.1542/peds.2005-146516585317
  • Paakkonen M, Kallio PE, Kallio MJ, Peltola H. Does bacteremia associated with bone and joint infections necessitate prolonged parenteral antimicrobial therapy? J Pediatric Infect Dis Soc. 2015;4(2):174–177. doi:10.1093/jpids/piv00926407420
  • Arnold JC, Cannavino CR, Ross MK, et al. Acute bacterial osteoarticular infections: eight-year analysis of C-reactive protein for oral step-down therapy. Pediatrics. 2012;130(4):e821–e828. doi:10.1542/peds.2012-022022966033
  • Adams DJ, Eberly MD, Rajnik M, Nylund CM. Risk factors for community-associated clostridium difficile infection in children. J Pediatr. 2017;186:105–109. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2017.03.03228396027
  • Messina AF, Namtu K, Guild M, Dumois JA, Berman DM. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole therapy for children with acute osteomyelitis. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2011;30(12):1019–1021. doi:10.1097/INF.0b013e31822db65821817950
  • Liu C, Bayer A, Cosgrove SE, et al. Clinical practice guidelines by the infectious diseases society of america for the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in adults and children. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52(3):e18–e55.21208910
  • Matuschek E, Ahman J, Kahlmeter G, et al. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing of Kingella kingae with broth microdilution and disk diffusion using EUCAST recommended media. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2017;36(3):396–401. doi:10.1016/j.cmi.2017.07.019
  • Yagupsky P, Katz O, Peled N. Antibiotic susceptibility of Kingella kingae isolates from respiratory carriers and patients with invasive infections. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2001;47(2):191–193. doi:10.1093/jac/47.2.19111157905
  • AlFawaz T, Alzumar O, AlShahrani D, Alshehri M. Severity of Salmonella infection among sickle cell diseases pediatric patients: description of the infection pattern. Int J Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2019;6(3):115–117. doi:10.1016/j.ijpam.2019.05.00131700970
  • Kamarulzaman A, Briggs RJ, Fabinyi G, Richards MJ. Skull osteomyelitis due to Salmonella species: two case reports and review. Clin Infect Dis. 1996;22(4):638–641. doi:10.1093/clinids/22.4.6388729202
  • Workman MR, Philpott-Howard J, Bragman S, Brito-Babapulle F, Bellingham AJ. Emergence of ciprofloxacin resistance during treatment of Salmonella osteomyelitis in three patients with sickle cell disease. J Infect. 1996;32(1):27–32. doi:10.1016/S0163-4453(96)80006-58852548
  • Williams DJ, Deis JN, Tardy J, Creech CB. Culture-negative osteoarticular infections in the era of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2011;30(6):523–525. doi:10.1097/INF.0b013e318207a7a521164383
  • Paakkonen M, Kallio MJ, Kallio PE, Peltola H. Significance of negative cultures in the treatment of acute hematogenous bone and joint infections in children. J Pediatric Infect Dis Soc. 2013;2(2):119–125. doi:10.1093/jpids/pis10826619459
  • Floyed RL, Steele RW. Culture-negative osteomyelitis. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2003;22(8):731–736. doi:10.1097/01.inf.0000078901.26909.cf12913776
  • Marschall J, Bhavan KP, Olsen MA, Fraser VJ, Wright NM, Warren DK. The impact of prebiopsy antibiotics on pathogen recovery in hematogenous vertebral osteomyelitis. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52(7):867–872. doi:10.1093/cid/cir06221427393
  • Berbari EF, Kanj SS, Kowalski TJ, et al. 2015 Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) clinical practice guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of native vertebral osteomyelitis in adults. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;61(6):e26–e46. doi:10.1093/cid/civ48226229122
  • Montgomery NI, Gonzalez E, Kaplan SL, et al. The role of surgery in the management of acute hematogenous osteomyelitis. Abstract 651. American Academy of Pediatrics Meeting; 2018; Vancouver:British Columbia.
  • Krogstad P. Septic arthritis In: Cherry JD, Harrison GJ, Kaplan SL, Steinbach WJ, Hotez PJ, editors. Feigin and Cherry’s Textbook of Pediatric Infectious Diseases. Vol. 1 7 Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders;2014:727–734.
  • Copley LA, Kinsler MA, Gheen T, Shar A, Sun D, Browne R. The impact of evidence-based clinical practice guidelines applied by a multidisciplinary team for the care of children with osteomyelitis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2013;95(8):686–693. doi:10.2106/JBJS.L.0003723595066
  • Riise OR, Kirkhus E, Handeland KS, et al. Childhood osteomyelitis-incidence and differentiation from other acute onset musculoskeletal features in a population-based study. BMC Pediatr. 2008;8:45. doi:10.1186/1471-2431-8-4518937840