Role of Monocytes/Macrophages in Covid-19 Pathogenesis: Implications for Therapy

References

• Lin YC, Chen SC, Huang CM, et al. Clinical features and diagnosis of new malignancy in patients with acute pulmonary embolism and without a history of cancer. J Chin Med Assoc. 2020;83(3):245–250.31972832
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• AlBshabshe A, Al-Asmary M, Al-Harthi M, et al. Usage of venous thromboembolism prophylaxis at a tertiary care hospital in Aseer region of Saudi Arabia. Saudi Med J. 2015;36(11):1367–1368. doi:10.15537/smj.2015.11.1223126593175
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Almasood A, Al Ahmari S, El-Shurafa H, et al. The change in mitral regurgitation severity after trans-catheter aortic valve implantation. J Saudi Heart Assoc. 2015;27(1):10–17. doi:10.1016/j.jsha.2014.05.00225544817
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Qin C, Zhou L, Hu Z, et al. Dysregulation of immune response in patients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China. Clin Infect Dis. 2020.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mehta P, McAuley DF, Brown M, et al. COVID-19: consider cytokine storm syndromes and immunosuppression. Lancet. 2020;395(10229):1033–1034. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30628-032192578
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peiris JS, Guan Y, Yuen KY. Severe acute respiratory syndrome. Nat Med. 2004;10(12 Suppl):S88–97. doi:10.1038/nm114315577937
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zumla A, Hui DS, Perlman S. Middle East respiratory syndrome. Lancet. 2015;386(9997):995–1007. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60454-826049252
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Channappanavar R, Fehr AR, Vijay R, et al. Dysregulated type I interferon and inflammatory monocyte-macrophage responses cause lethal pneumonia in SARS-CoV-infected mice. Cell Host Microbe. 2016;19(2):181–193. doi:10.1016/j.chom.2016.01.00726867177
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lau SKP, Lau CCY, Chan KH, et al. Delayed induction of proinflammatory cytokines and suppression of innate antiviral response by the novel Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus: implications for pathogenesis and treatment. J Gen Virol. 2013;94(Pt 12):2679–2690. doi:10.1099/vir.0.055533-024077366
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franks TJ, Chong PY, Chui P, et al. Lung pathology of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS): a study of 8 autopsy cases from Singapore. Hum Pathol. 2003;34(8):743–748. doi:10.1016/S0046-8177(03)00367-814506633
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicholls J, Dong XP, Jiang G, Peiris M. SARS: clinical virology and pathogenesis. Respirology. 2003;8(s1):S6–8. doi:10.1046/j.1440-1843.2003.00517.x15018126
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yilla M, Harcourt BH, Hickman CJ, et al. SARS-coronavirus replication in human peripheral monocytes/macrophages. Virus Res. 2005;107(1):93–101. doi:10.1016/j.virusres.2004.09.00415567038
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Desforges M, Miletti TC, Gagnon M, Talbot PJ. Activation of human monocytes after infection by human coronavirus 229E. Virus Res. 2007;130(1–2):228–240. doi:10.1016/j.virusres.2007.06.01617669539
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhou J, Chu H, Li C, et al. Active replication of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus and aberrant induction of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines in human macrophages: implications for pathogenesis. J Infect Dis. 2014;209(9):1331–1342. doi:10.1093/infdis/jit50424065148
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yip MS, Leung NH, Cheung CY, et al. Antibody-dependent infection of human macrophages by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus. Virol J. 2014;11:82. doi:10.1186/1743-422X-11-8224885320
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheung CY, Poon LL, Ng IH, et al. Cytokine responses in severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-infected macrophages in vitro: possible relevance to pathogenesis. J Virol. 2005;79(12):7819–7826. doi:10.1128/JVI.79.12.7819-7826.200515919935
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Law HK, Cheung CY, Ng HY, et al. Chemokine up-regulation in SARS-coronavirus-infected, monocyte-derived human dendritic cells. Blood. 2005;106(7):2366–2374. doi:10.1182/blood-2004-10-416615860669
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu W, Yen YT, Singh S, Kao CL, Wu-Hsieh BA. SARS-CoV regulates immune function-related gene expression in human monocytic cells. Viral Immunol. 2012;25(4):277–288. doi:10.1089/vim.2011.009922876772
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoshikawa T, Hill T, Li K, Peters CJ, Tseng CT. Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus-induced lung epithelial cytokines exacerbate SARS pathogenesis by modulating intrinsic functions of monocyte-derived macrophages and dendritic cells. J Virol. 2009;83(7):3039–3048. doi:10.1128/JVI.01792-0819004938
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu J, Zhong S, Liu J, et al. Detection of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus in the brain: potential role of the chemokine mig in pathogenesis. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41(8):1089–1096. doi:10.1086/44446116163626
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang C, Wu Z, Li JW, Zhao H, Wang GQ. The cytokine release syndrome (CRS) of severe COVID-19 and Interleukin-6 receptor (IL-6R) antagonist Tocilizumab may be the key to reduce the mortality. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2020;55(5):105954. doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.10595432234467
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shimabukuro-Vornhagen A, Godel P, Subklewe M, et al. Cytokine release syndrome. J Immunother Cancer. 2018;6(1):56. doi:10.1186/s40425-018-0343-929907163
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee DW, Gardner R, Porter DL, et al. Current concepts in the diagnosis and management of cytokine release syndrome. Blood. 2014;124(2):188–195. doi:10.1182/blood-2014-05-55272924876563
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Norelli M, Camisa B, Barbiera G, et al. Monocyte-derived IL-1 and IL-6 are differentially required for cytokine-release syndrome and neurotoxicity due to CAR T cells. Nat Med. 2018;24(6):739–748. doi:10.1038/s41591-018-0036-429808007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giavridis T, van der Stegen SJC, Eyquem J, Hamieh M, Piersigilli A, Sadelain M. CAR T cell-induced cytokine release syndrome is mediated by macrophages and abated by IL-1 blockade. Nat Med. 2018;24(6):731–738. doi:10.1038/s41591-018-0041-729808005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sumaili H, Al-Kofide A, Al-Seraihi A, et al. Outcome of pediatric patients with lymphoma following stem cell transplant: a single institution report. Leuk Lymphoma. 2015;56(5):1327–1334. doi:10.3109/10428194.2014.95184625139691
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ravelli A. Macrophage activation syndrome. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2002;14(5):548–552. doi:10.1097/00002281-200209000-0001212192253
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lerkvaleekul B, Vilaiyuk S. Macrophage activation syndrome: early diagnosis is key. Open Access Rheumatol. 2018;10:117–128. doi:10.2147/OARRR.S15101330214327
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet. 2020;395(10223):497–506. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-531986264
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGonagle D, Sharif K, O’Regan A, Bridgewood C. The role of cytokines including interleukin-6 in COVID-19 induced pneumonia and macrophage activation syndrome-like disease. Autoimmun Rev. 2020;19(6):102537. doi:10.1016/j.autrev.2020.10253732251717
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beutel G, Wiesner O, Eder M, et al. Virus-associated hemophagocytic syndrome as a major contributor to death in patients with 2009 influenza A (H1N1) infection. Crit Care. 2011;15(2):R80. doi:10.1186/cc1007321366922
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hsieh YC, Wu TZ, Liu DP, et al. Influenza pandemics: past, present and future. J Formos Med Assoc. 2006;105(1):1–6. doi:10.1016/S0929-6646(09)60102-916440064
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henter JI, Chow CB, Leung CW, Lau YL. Cytotoxic therapy for severe avian influenza A (H5N1) infection. Lancet. 2006;367(9513):870–873. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68232-916530581
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu L, Wei Q, Lin Q, et al. Anti-spike IgG causes severe acute lung injury by skewing macrophage responses during acute SARS-CoV infection. JCI Insight. 2019;4(4). doi:10.1172/jci.insight.123158.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ye Q, Wang B, Mao J. The pathogenesis and treatment of the `Cytokine Storm’ in COVID-19. J Infect. 2020;80(6):607–613. doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2020.03.03732283152
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chiang WC, Wu MS, Tsai CC, Lin SL, Tsai TJ, Hsieh BS. Thrombotic microangiopathy in hemophagocytic syndrome: a case report. J Formos Med Assoc. 2002;101(5):362–367.12101856
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valade S, Mariotte E, Azoulay E. Coagulation disorders in hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis/macrophage activation syndrome. Crit Care Clin. 2020;36(2):415–426. doi:10.1016/j.ccc.2019.12.00432172822
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tracy PB, Allen DH, Worfolk LA, Lawler RR. Monocyte/macrophage regulation of coagulant events. Haemostasis. 1996;26(Suppl 1):6–11. doi:10.1159/0002172308904165
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Helin H. Macrophage procoagulant factors–mediators of inflammatory and neoplastic tissue lesions. Med Biol. 1986;64(4):167–176.3537556
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ciceri F, Beretta L, Scandroglio AM, et al. Microvascular COVID-19 lung vessels obstructive thromboinflammatory syndrome (MicroCLOTS): an atypical acute respiratory distress syndrome working hypothesis. Crit Care Resusc. 2020;15.
   Google Scholar
• Klok FA, Kruip M, van der Meer NJM, et al. Incidence of thrombotic complications in critically ill ICU patients with COVID-19. Thromb Res. 2020;191:145–147. doi:10.1016/j.thromres.2020.04.01332291094
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tanaka T, Narazaki M, Kishimoto T. Immunotherapeutic implications of IL-6 blockade for cytokine storm. Immunotherapy. 2016;8(8):959–970. doi:10.2217/imt-2016-002027381687
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spath S, Komuczki J, Hermann M, et al. Dysregulation of the cytokine GM-CSF induces spontaneous phagocyte invasion and immunopathology in the central nervous system. Immunity. 2017;46(2):245–260. doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2017.01.00728228281
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whittaker E, Bamford A, Kenny J, et al. Clinical characteristics of 58 children with a pediatric inflammatory multisystem syndrome temporally associated with SARS-CoV-2. JAMA. 2020. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.10369
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galeotti C, Bayry J. Autoimmune and inflammatory diseases following COVID-19. Nat Rev Rheumatol. 2020. doi:10.1038/s41584-020-0448-7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akira S, Taga T, Kishimoto T. Interleukin-6 in biology and medicine. Adv Immunol. 1993;54:1–78.8379461
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chomarat P, Banchereau J, Davoust J, Palucka AK. IL-6 switches the differentiation of monocytes from dendritic cells to macrophages. Nat Immunol. 2000;1(6):510–514. doi:10.1038/8276311101873
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eskilsson A, Mirrasekhian E, Dufour S, Schwaninger M, Engblom D, Blomqvist A. Immune-induced fever is mediated by IL-6 receptors on brain endothelial cells coupled to STAT3-dependent induction of brain endothelial prostaglandin synthesis. J Neurosci. 2014;34(48):15957–15961. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3520-14.201425429137
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gabay C. Interleukin-6 and chronic inflammation. Arthritis Res Ther. 2006;8(Suppl 2):S3. doi:10.1186/ar1917
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friedrich K, Sommer M, Strobel S, et al. Perturbation of the monocyte compartment in human obesity. Front Immunol. 2019;10:1874. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2019.0187431440251
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sindhu S, Thomas R, Shihab P, Sriraman D, Behbehani K, Ahmad R. Obesity is a positive modulator of IL-6R and IL-6 expression in the subcutaneous adipose tissue: significance for metabolic inflammation. PLoS One. 2015;10(7):e0133494. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.013349426200663
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamilton JA. GM-CSF in inflammation and autoimmunity. Trends Immunol. 2002;23(8):403–408. doi:10.1016/S1471-4906(02)02260-312133803
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lotfi N, Thome R, Rezaei N, et al. Roles of GM-CSF in the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases: an update. Front Immunol. 2019;10:1265. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2019.0126531275302
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smatti MK, Cyprian FS, Nasrallah GK, Al Thani AA, Almishal RO, Yassine HM. Viruses and autoimmunity: a review on the potential interaction and molecular mechanisms. Viruses. 2019;11(8):762. doi:10.3390/v11080762
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sterner RM, Sakemura R, Cox MJ, et al. GM-CSF inhibition reduces cytokine release syndrome and neuroinflammation but enhances CAR-T cell function in xenografts. Blood. 2019;133(7):697–709. doi:10.1182/blood-2018-10-88172230463995
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu R, Zhao X, Li J, et al. Genomic characterisation and epidemiology of 2019 novel coronavirus: implications for virus origins and receptor binding. Lancet. 2020;395(10224):565–574. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30251-832007145
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bourgonje AR, Abdulle AE, Timens W, et al. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), SARS-CoV-2 and the pathophysiology of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). J Pathol. 2020;251(3):228–248. doi:10.1002/path.5471
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drummond GR, Vinh A, Guzik TJ, Sobey CG. Immune mechanisms of hypertension. Nat Rev Immunol. 2019;19(8):517–532. doi:10.1038/s41577-019-0160-530992524
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rutkowska-Zapala M, Suski M, Szatanek R, et al. Human monocyte subsets exhibit divergent angiotensin I-converting activity. Clin Exp Immunol. 2015;181(1):126–132. doi:10.1111/cei.1261225707554
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shantsila E, Lip GY. Monocytes in acute coronary syndromes. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2009;29(10):1433–1438. doi:10.1161/ATVBAHA.108.18051319229072
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bangalore S, Sharma A, Slotwiner A, et al. ST-segment elevation in patients with Covid-19 - a case series. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(25):2478–2480. doi:10.1056/NEJMc200902032302081
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tirado SM, Yoon KJ. Antibody-dependent enhancement of virus infection and disease. Viral Immunol. 2003;16(1):69–86. doi:10.1089/08828240376363546512725690
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang ZY, Werner HC, Kong WP, et al. Evasion of antibody neutralization in emerging severe acute respiratory syndrome coronaviruses. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005;102(3):797–801. doi:10.1073/pnas.040906510215642942
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ho MS, Chen WJ, Chen HY, et al. Neutralizing antibody response and SARS severity. Emerg Infect Dis. 2005;11(11):1730–1737. doi:10.3201/eid1111.04065916318725
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Houser KV, Broadbent AJ, Gretebeck L, et al. Enhanced inflammation in New Zealand white rabbits when MERS-CoV reinfection occurs in the absence of neutralizing antibody. PLoS Pathog. 2017;13(8):e1006565. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.100656528817732
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tseng CT, Sbrana E, Iwata-Yoshikawa N, et al. Immunization with SARS coronavirus vaccines leads to pulmonary immunopathology on challenge with the SARS virus. PLoS One. 2012;7(4):e35421. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.003542122536382
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jaume M, Yip MS, Cheung CY, et al. Anti-severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus spike antibodies trigger infection of human immune cells via a pH- and cysteine protease-independent FcgammaR pathway. J Virol. 2011;85(20):10582–10597. doi:10.1128/JVI.00671-1121775467
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wan Y, Shang J, Sun S, et al. Molecular mechanism for antibody-dependent enhancement of coronavirus entry. J Virol. 2020;94(5).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wan Y, Shang J, Graham R, Baric RS, Li F, Gallagher T. Receptor recognition by the Novel Coronavirus from Wuhan: an analysis based on decade-long structural studies of SARS Coronavirus. J Virol. 2020;94(7). doi:10.1128/JVI.00127-20
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iwasaki A, Yang Y. The potential danger of suboptimal antibody responses in COVID-19. Nat Rev Immunol. 2020;20(6):339–341. doi:10.1038/s41577-020-0321-632317716
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tetro JA. Is COVID-19 receiving ADE from other coronaviruses? Microbes Infect. 2020;22(2):72–73. doi:10.1016/j.micinf.2020.02.00632092539
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gotoff R, Tamura M, Janus J, Thompson J, Wright P, Ennis FA. Primary influenza A virus infection induces cross-reactive antibodies that enhance uptake of virus into Fc receptor-bearing cells. J Infect Dis. 1994;169(1):200–203. doi:10.1093/infdis/169.1.2008277183
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boonnak K, Slike BM, Burgess TH, et al. Role of dendritic cells in antibody-dependent enhancement of dengue virus infection. J Virol. 2008;82(8):3939–3951. doi:10.1128/JVI.02484-0718272578
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gras GS, Dormont D. Antibody-dependent and antibody-independent complement-mediated enhancement of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection in a human, Epstein-Barr virus-transformed B-lymphocytic cell line. J Virol. 1991;65(1):541–545. doi:10.1128/JVI.65.1.541-545.19911845908
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang W, Zhao Y, Zhang F, et al. The use of anti-inflammatory drugs in the treatment of people with severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): the perspectives of clinical immunologists from China. Clin Immunol. 2020;214:108393. doi:10.1016/j.clim.2020.10839332222466
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luo P, Liu Y, Qiu L, Liu X, Liu D, Li J. Tocilizumab treatment in COVID-19: a single center experience. J Med Virol. 2020;92(7):814–818. doi:10.1002/jmv.2580132253759
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stebbing J, Phelan A, Griffin I, et al. COVID-19: combining antiviral and anti-inflammatory treatments. Lancet Infect Dis. 2020;20(4):400–402. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30132-832113509
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Temesgen Z, Assi M, Vergidis P, et al. First clinical use of Lenzilumab to neutralize GM-CSF in patients with severe COVID-19 pneumonia. medRxiv. 2020.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Burmester GR, Feist E, Sleeman MA, Wang B, White B, Magrini F. Mavrilimumab, a human monoclonal antibody targeting GM-CSF receptor-alpha, in subjects with rheumatoid arthritis: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase I, first-in-human study. Ann Rheum Dis. 2011;70(9):1542–1549. doi:10.1136/ard.2010.14622521613310
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Luca G, Cavalli G, Campochiaro C, Della-Torre E, Angelillo P, Tomelleri A. GM-CSF blockade with mavrilimumab in severe COVID-19 pneumonia systemic hyperinflamation: a single-centre, prospective cohort study. Lancet Rheumatol. 2020. doi:10.1016/S2665-9913(20)30170-3
   Google Scholar