958
Views
11
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
REVIEW

Current Perspectives on the Diagnosis and Management of Healthcare-Associated Ventriculitis and Meningitis

ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon & ORCID Icon
Pages 697-721 | Published online: 28 Feb 2022

References

  • Hussein K, Bitterman R, Shofty B, Paul M, Neuberger A. Management of postneurosurgical meningitis: narrative review. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2017;23(9):621–628. doi:10.1016/j.cmi.2017.05.013
  • Tunkel AR, Hasbun R, Bhimrah A, et al. Infectious Disease Society of America’s clinical practice guidelines for healthcare-associated ventriculitis and meningitis. Clin Infect Dis. 2017;64:e34–e65. doi:10.1093/cid/ciw861
  • McClelland S, Hall WA. Postoperative central nervous system infection: incidence and associated factors in 2111 neurosurgical procedures. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45:55–59. doi:10.1086/518580
  • Chen C, Zhang B, Yu S, et al. The incidence and risk factors of meningitis after major craniotomy in China: a retrospective cohort study. PLoS One. 2014;9:e101961. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0101961
  • Sader E, Moore J, Cervantes-Arslanian AM. Neurosurgical infections. Semin Neurol. 2019;39:507–514. doi:10.1055/s-0039-1693107
  • Ramanan M, Lipman J, Shorr A, Shankar A. A meta-analysis of ventriculostomy-associated cerebrospinal fluid infections. BMC Infect Dis. 2015;15:3. doi:10.1186/s12879-014-0712-z
  • Bischoff P, Schroder C, Gastmeier P, Geffers C. Surveillance of external ventricular drainage-associated meningitis and ventriculitis in German intensive care units. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2020;41(4):452–457. doi:10.1017/ice.2019.367
  • Simon TD, Hall M, Riva-Cambrin J, et al. Infection rates following initial cerebrospinal fluid shunt placement across pediatric hospitals in the United States. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2009;4(2):156–165. doi:10.3171/2009.3.PEDS08215
  • Hasbun R. Central nervous system device infections. Curr Infect Dis Rep. 2016;18(11):34. doi:10.1007/s11908-016-0541-x
  • Bjerknes S, Skogsied IM, Saele T, Dietrichs E, Toft M. Surgical site infections after deep brain stimulation surgery: frequency, characteristics and management in a 10-year period. PLoS One. 2014;9(8):e105288. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0105288
  • Schiess MC, Eldabe S, Konrad P, et al. Intrathecal baclofen for severe spasticity: longitudinal data from the product surveillance registry. Neuromodulation. 2020;23(7):996–1002. doi:10.1111/ner.13097
  • Adapa AR, Linzey JR, Moriguchi F, et al. Risk factors and morbidity associated with surgical site infection subtypes following adult neurosurgical procedures. Br J Neurosurg. 2021:1–7. doi:10.1080/02688697.2021.1905773
  • Li Z, Wu X, Yu J, et al. Empirical combination antibiotic therapy improves the outcome of nosocomial meningitis or ventriculitis in neuro-critical care patients. Surg Infect (Larchmt). 2016;17(4):465–472. doi:10.1089/sur.2015.060
  • Hersh EH, Yaeger KA, Neifert SN, Kim J, Dangayach NS, Weiss N. Patterns of health care costs due to external ventricular drain infections. World Neurosurg. 2019;128:e31–37. doi:10.1016/j.wneu.2019.03.197
  • Karvouniaris M, Brotis AG, Tsiamalou P, Fountas KN. The role of intraventricular antibiotics in the treatment of nosocomial ventriculitis/meningitis from Gram-negative pathogens: a systematic review and meta-analysis. World Neurosurg. 2018;120:e637–e650. doi:10.1016/j.wneu.2018.08.138
  • Kadri S, Adjemian J, Lai YL, et al. Difficult-to-treat resistance in Gram-negative bacteremia at 173 US hospitals: retrospective cohort analysis of prevalence, predictors, and outcome of resistance to all first-line agents. Clin Infect Dis. 2018;67(12):1803–1814. doi:10.1093/cid/ciy378
  • Cicek Senturk G, Ozay R, Kul G, et al. Evaluation of post-operative meningitis: comparison of meningitis caused by Acinetobacter spp. and other possible causes. Turk Neurosurg. 2019;29(6):804–810. doi:10.5137/1019-5149.JTN.25151-18.1
  • van de Beek D, Drake JM, Tunkel AR. Nosocomial Bacterial Meningitis. N Engl J Med. 2010;362(2):146–154. doi:10.1056/NEJMra0804573
  • Lozier AP, Sciacca RR, Romagnoli MF, Connolly ES Jr. Ventriculostomy-related infections: a critical review of the literature. Neurosurgery. 2002;51(1):170–181. doi:10.1097/00006123-200207000-00024
  • Zheng W-J, Li L-M, Hu Z-H, et al. Bilateral external ventricular drains increase ventriculostomy-associated cerebrospinal fluid infection in low modified graeb score intraventricular hemorrhage. World Neurosurg. 2018;116:e550–e555. doi:10.1016/j.wneu.2018.05.030
  • Simon TD, Butler J, Whitlock KB, et al. Risk factors for first cerebrospinal fluid shunt infection: findings from a multi-center prospective cohort study. J Pediatr. 2014;164(6):1462–1468. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2014.02.013
  • Conen A, Raabe A, Schaller K, Fux CA, Vajkoczy P, Trampuz A. Management of neurosurgical implant-associated infections. Swiss Med Wkly. 2020;150:w20208. doi:10.4414/smw.2020.20208
  • Mounier R, Lobo D, Cook F, et al. From the skin to the brain: pathophysiology of colonization and infection of external ventricular drain, a prospective observational study. PLoS One. 2015;10(11):e142320. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0142320
  • Ramirez P, Gordon M, Soriano A, et al. Assessment or the in vivo formation of biofilm on external ventricular drainages. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2013;32:1437–1443. doi:10.1007/s10096-013-1895-8
  • Paharik AE, Horswill AR. The Staphylococcal Biofilm: adhesins, regulation, and host response. Microbiol Spectr. 2016;4(2). doi:10.1128/microbiolspec.VMBF-0022-2015
  • Pompilio A, Scribano D, Sharsar M, Di Bonaventura G, Palamara AT, Ambrosi C. Gram-negative bacteria holding together in a biofilm: the Acinetobacter baumannii way. Microorganisms. 2021;9:1353. doi:10.3390/microorganisms9071353
  • Citerio G, Signorini L, Bronco A, Vargiolu A, Rota M, Latronico N; on behalf of the Infezioni LIquoriali Catetere Correlate Study Investigators. External ventricular and lumbar drain device infections in ICU patients: a prospective multicenter Italian study. Crit Care Med. 2015;43:1630–1637. doi:10.1097/CCM.0000000000001019
  • Hussein K, Rabino G, Feder O, et al. Risk factors for meningitis in neurosurgical patients with cerebrospinal fluid drains: prospective observational cohort study. Acta Neurochir. 2019;161:517–524. doi:10.1007/s00701-019-03801-y
  • Munari M, Franzoi F, Sergi M, et al. Extensively drug-resistant and multidrug-resistant gram-negative pathogens in the neurocritical intensive care unit. Acta Neurochir. 2020. doi:10.1007/s00701-020-04611-3
  • Pandey S, Li L, Deng XY, Cui DM, Gao L. Outcome following the treatment of ventriculitis caused by multi/extensive drug resistance Gram negative Bacilli; Acinetobacter baumannii and Klebsiella pneumonia. Front Neurol. 2019;9:1174. doi:10.3389/fneur.2018.01174
  • Kurtaran B, Kuscu F, Ulu A, et al. The causes of postoperative meningitis: the comparison of Gram-negative and Gram-positive pathogens. Turk Neurosurg. 2018;28(4):589–596. doi:10.5137/1019-5149.JTN.20575-17.1
  • Rogers T, Sok K, Erickson T, et al. The comparison of Gram-positive and Gram-negative healthcare-associated ventriculitis and meningitis in adults and children. Intensive Care Med. 2020;46(1):128–131. doi:10.1007/s00134-019-05815-7
  • Chen M, Chen C, Yang Q, Zhan R. Candida meningitis in neurosurgical patients: a single-institute study of nine cases over 7 years. Epidemiol Infect. 2020;148:e148. doi:10.1017/S0950268820001144
  • O’Brien D, Stevens NT, Lim CH, et al. Candida infection of the central nervous system following neurosurgery: a 12-year review. Acta Neurochir. 2011;153:1347–1350. doi:10.1007/s00701-011-0990-9
  • Srihawan C, Lopez Castelblanco R, Salazar L, et al. Clinical characteristics and predictors of adverse outcome in adult and pediatric patients with healthcare-associated ventriculitis and meningitis. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2016;3(2):ofw077. doi:10.1093/ofid/ofw077
  • Rogers T, Sok K, Erickson T, et al. Impact of antibiotic therapy in the microbiological yield of healthcare-associated ventriculitis and meningitis. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2019;6(3):ofz050. doi:10.1093/ofid/ofz050
  • National Healthcare Safety Network [homepage on the Internet]. CDC/NHSN Surveillance Definitions for Specific Types of Infections 2021. Surveillance Definitions (cdc.gov); August 21, 2021.
  • Rabinstein AA, Sandhu K. Noninfectious fever in the NICU: incidence, causes and predictors. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2007;78(11):1278–1280. doi:10.1136/jnnp.2006.112730
  • O’Horo J, Sampathkumar P. Infections in neurocritical care. Neurocrit Care. 2017;27(3):458–467. doi:10.1007/s12028-017-0420-9
  • Mounier R, Kapandji N, Birnbaum R, et al. Biofilm-associated infection: the hidden face of cerebrospinal fluid shunt malfunction. Acta Neurochir. 2016;158:2321–2324. doi:10.1007/s00701-016-2977-z
  • Martin RM, Zimmermann LL, Huynh M, et al. Diagnostic approach to health care- and device-associated central nervous system infections. J Clin Microbiol. 2018;56(11):e00861–18.
  • Hasbun R. Healthcare-associated ventriculitis: current and emerging diagnostic and treatment strategies. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2021;19(8):993–999. doi:10.1080/14787210.2021.1866544
  • Omar AS, El Shawarby A, Singh R. Early monitoring of ventriculostomy-related infections with procalcitonin in patients with ventricular drains. J Clin Monit Comput. 2015;29(6):759–765. doi:10.1007/s10877-015-9663-1
  • Zarrouk V, Vassor I, Bert F, et al. Evaluation of the management of postoperative aseptic meningitis. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:1555–1559. doi:10.1086/518169
  • Montes K, Jenkinson H, Habib OB, Esquenazi Y, Hasbun R. Corrected white blood cell count, cell index, and validation of a clinical model for the diagnosis of health care-associated ventriculitis and meningitis in adults with intracranial hemorrhage. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2019;178:36–41. doi:10.1016/j.clineuro.2019.01.012
  • Liew S, Richards S, Ho KM, Murray R. Utility of the cell index in predicting external ventricular drain-related ventriculo-meningitis. Neurocrit Care. 2020;33(3):776–784. doi:10.1007/s12028-020-00964-w
  • Sakushima K, Hayashino Y, Kawaguchi T, Jackson JL, Fukuhara S. Diagnostic accuracy of cerebrospinal fluid lactate for differentiating bacterial meningitis from aseptic meningitis: a meta-analysis. J Infect. 2011;62:255–262. doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2011.02.010
  • Hill E, Bleck TP, Singh K, Ouyang B, Busl KM. CSF lactate is not a reliable indicator of bacterial ventriculitis in patients with ventriculostomies. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2017;157:95–98. doi:10.1016/j.clineuro.2017.03.021
  • Abudeev SA, Kiselev KV, Kruglyakov KM, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid presepsin as a marker of nosocomial infections of the central nervous system: a prospective observational study. Front Neurol. 2018;9:58. doi:10.3389/fneur.2018.00058
  • Zheng G, Zhang C, Zhang G, Shao C. Evaluation of the diagnostic and prognostic value of CSF presepsin levels in patients with postneurosurgical ventriculitis/meningitis. Infect Drug Resist. 2021;14:2901–2909. doi:10.2147/IDR.S325635
  • Lenski M, Biszok A, Neufischer K, Tonn J-C, Briegel J, Thon N. Significance of cerebrospinal fluid inflammatory markers for diagnosing external ventricular drain-associated ventriculitis in patients with severe traumatic brain injury. Neurosurg Focus. 2019;47(5):E15. doi:10.3171/2019.8.FOCUS19407
  • Lenski M, Huge V, Briegel J, Tonn J-C, Schichor C, Thon N. Interleukin-6 in the cerebrospinal fluid as biomarker for onset of vasospasm and ventriculitis after severe subarachnoidal hemorrhage. World Neurosurg. 2017;99:132–139. doi:10.1016/j.wneu.2016.11.131
  • Lenski M, Huge V, Schmutzer M, et al. Inflammatory markers in serum and cerebrospinal fluid for early detection of external ventricular drain–associated ventriculitis in patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol. 2019;31(2):227–233. doi:10.1097/ANA.0000000000000496
  • Zhang G, Yang C, Kang X, Gao Z, Wan H, Liu Y. The combination of cerebrospinal fluid procalcitonin, lactate, interleukin-8, and interleukin-10 levels for the diagnosis of post-neurosurgical bacterial meningitis: a prospective study. Ann Clin Biochem. 2019;56(1):133–140. doi:10.1177/0004563218794729
  • Olguner SK, Boyar B, Alabaz D, et al. Tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin-1 beta levels in cerebrospinal fluid examination for the diagnosis of ventriculoperitoneal shunt-related ventriculitis. Childs Nerv Syst. 2019;35(4):629–636. doi:10.1007/s00381-019-04070-x
  • Liu Z-H, Tu P-H, Chen N-Y, et al. Raised proinflammatory cytokine production within cerebrospinal fluid precedes fever onset in patients with neurosurgery-associated bacterial meningitis. Crit Care Med. 2015;43(11):2416–2428. doi:10.1097/CCM.0000000000001188
  • Cuff SM, Merola JP, Twohig JP, Eberl M, Gray WP. Toll-like receptor linked cytokine profiles in cerebrospinal fluid discriminate neurological infection from sterile inflammation. Brain Commun. 2020;2(2):fcaa218. doi:10.1093/braincomms/fcaa218
  • Piva S, Albani F, Fagoni N, et al. High-mobility group box-1 protein as a novel biomarker to diagnose healthcare-associated ventriculitis and meningitis: a pilot study. Minerva Anestesiol. 2021;87(1):43–51. doi:10.23736/S0375-9393.20.14222-6
  • Zheng G, Ji X, Yu X, et al. Development and verification of a discriminate algorithm for diagnosing post-neurosurgical bacterial meningitis-A multicenter observational study. J Clin Lab Anal. 2020;34(2):e23069. doi:10.1002/jcla.23069
  • Hernández Ortiz OH, García García HI, Muñoz Ramírez F, et al. Development of a prediction rule for diagnosing postoperative meningitis: a cross-sectional study. J Neurosurg. 2018;128:262–271. doi:10.3171/2016.10.JNS16379
  • Beaver M, Lagundzin D, Thapa I, et al. Cutibacterium acnes central nervous system catheter infection induces long-term changes in the cerebrospinal fluid proteome. Infect Immun. 2021;89(4). doi:10.1128/IAI.00531-20
  • Finger G, Worm PV, Dos Santos SC, Do Nascimento TL, Gallo P, Stefani MA. Cerebrospinal fluid collected by lumbar puncture has a higher diagnostic accuracy than collected by ventriculostomy. World Neurosurg. 2020;138:e683–e689. doi:10.1016/j.wneu.2020.03.045
  • Pittman ME, Thomas BS, Wallace MA, Weber CJ, Burnham CA. Routine testing for anaerobic bacteria in cerebrospinal fluid cultures improves recovery of clinically significant pathogens. J Clin Microbiol. 2014;52(6):1824–1829. doi:10.1128/JCM.00193-14
  • Desai A, Scott Lollis S, Missios S, et al. How long should cerebrospinal fluid cultures be held to detect shunt infections? J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2009;4(2):184–189. doi:10.3171/2009.4.PEDS08279
  • Gordon CL, Tokarz R, Briese T, et al. Evaluation of a multiplex polymerase chain reaction for early diagnosis of ventriculostomy-related infections. J Neurosurg. 2015;123(6):1586–1592. doi:10.3171/2014.11.JNS141036
  • Rath P-M, Schoch B, Adamzik M, Steinmann E, Buer J, Steinmann J. Value of multiplex PCR using cerebrospinal fluid for the diagnosis of ventriculostomy-related meningitis in neurosurgery patients. Infection. 2014;42(4):621–627. doi:10.1007/s15010-014-0590-8
  • Dąbrowski P, Jurkiewicz J, Czernicki Z, Koszewski W, Jasielski P. Polymerase chain reaction based detection of bacterial 16S rRNA gene in the cerebrospinal fluid in the diagnosis of bacterial central nervous system infection in the course of external cerebrospinal fluid drainage. Comparison with standard diagnostics currently used in clinical practice. Neurol Neurosurg Pol. 2017;51(5):388–394.
  • Banks JT, Bharara S, Tubbs RS, et al. Polymerase chain reaction for the rapid detection of cerebrospinal fluid shunt or ventriculostomy infections. Neurosurgery. 2005;57(6):1237–1243. doi:10.1227/01.NEU.0000186038.98817.72
  • Deutch S, Dahlberg D, Hedegaard J, Schmidt MB, Møller JK, Ostergaard L. Diagnosis of ventricular drainage-related bacterial meningitis by broad-range real-time polymerase chain reaction. Neurosurgery. 2007;61(2):306–311. doi:10.1227/01.NEU.0000255526.34956.E4
  • Perdigão Neto LV, Medeiros M, Ferreira SC, et al. Polymerase chain reaction targeting 16S ribosomal RNA for the diagnosis of bacterial meningitis after neurosurgery. Clinics (Sao Paulo). 2021;76:e2284. doi:10.6061/clinics/2021/e2284
  • Qian L, Shi Y, Li F, et al. Metagenomic next-generation sequencing of cerebrospinal fluid for the diagnosis of external ventricular and lumbar drainage-associated ventriculitis and meningitis. Front Microbiol. 2020;11:596175. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2020.596175
  • Biofire-diagnostics [homepage on the Internet]. Biofire FilmArray Meningitis/Encephalitis Panel (ME). BioFire Diagnostics (biofiredx.com); October 20, 2021.
  • Biofire-diagnostics [homepage on the Internet]. Biofire FilmArray Blood Culture Identification 2 Panel (BCID2). BioFire Blood Culture Identification (BCID) Panels | BioFire Diagnostics (biofiredx.com); October 20, 2021.
  • Lopez-Amor L, García-Prieto E, Fernandez-Suarez J, et al. Evaluation of a commercial multiplex PCR for diagnosis of central nervous system (CNS) nosocomial infections. J Microbiol Methods. 2020;171:105865. doi:10.1016/j.mimet.2020.105865
  • Zhang G, Zheng G, Zhang Y, Ma R, Kang X. Evaluation of a micro/nanofluidic chip platform for the high-throughput detection of bacteria and their antibiotic resistance genes in post-neurosurgical meningitis. Int J Infect Dis. 2018;70:115–120. doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2018.03.012
  • Bishop B, Geffen Y, Plaut A, et al. The use of matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry for rapid bacterial identification in patients with smear-positive bacterial meningitis. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2018;24:171–174. doi:10.1016/j.cmi.2017.05.014
  • Jost GF, Wasner M, Taub E, Walti L, Mariani L, Trampuz A. Sonication of catheter tips for improved detection of microorganisms on external ventricular drains and ventriculoperitoneal shunts. J Clin Neurosci. 2014;21:578–582. doi:10.1016/j.jocn.2013.05.025
  • Prinz V, Bayerl S, Renz N, Trampuz A, Vajkoczy P, Finger T. Sonication improves pathogen detection in ventriculoperitoneal shunt-associated infections. Neurosurgery. 2019;85:516–523. doi:10.1093/neuros/nyy383
  • Thomaidis PC, Pantazatou A, Kamariotis S, et al. sonication assisted microbiological diagnosis of implant-related infection caused by Prevotella disiens and Staphylococcus epidermidis in a patient with cranioplasty. BMC Res Notes. 2015;8:307. doi:10.1186/s13104-015-1274-x
  • Apostolakis S. Use of focused ultrasound (sonication) for the diagnosis of infections in neurosurgical operations: a systematic review and meta-analysis. World Neurosurg. 2020;136:364–373.e2. doi:10.1016/j.wneu.2019.12.143
  • Lewis A, Wahlster S, Karinja S, Czeisler B, Kimberly T, Lord AS. Ventriculostomy-related infections (VRI): the performance of different definitions for diagnosing infection. Br J Neurosurg. 2016;30(1):49–56. doi:10.3109/02688697.2015.1080222
  • Mounier R, Lobo D, Cook F, et al. Clinical, biological, and microbiological pattern associated with ventriculostomy-related infection: a retrospective longitudinal study. Acta Neurochir. 2015;157(12):2209–2217. doi:10.1007/s00701-015-2574-6
  • Gozal YM, Farley CW, Hanseman DJ, et al. Ventriculostomy-associated infection: a new, standardized reporting definition and institutional experience. Neurocrit Care. 2014;21(1):147–151. doi:10.1007/s12028-013-9936-9
  • Honda H, Jones JC, Craighead MC, Diringer MN, Dacey RG, Warren DK. Reducing the incidence of intraventricular catheter–related ventriculitis in the neurology‐neurosurgical intensive care unit at a tertiary care center in St Louis, Missouri: an 8‐year follow‐up study. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2010;31(10):1078–1081. doi:10.1086/656377
  • Mallucci CL, Jenkinson MD, Conroy EJ, et al.; BASICS Study collaborators. Antibiotic or silver versus standard ventriculoperitoneal shunts (BASICS): a multicentre, single-blinded, randomised trial and economic evaluation. Lancet. 2019;394(10208):1530–1539. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(19)31603-4
  • Korinek AM, Reina M, Boch AL, Rivera AO, De Bels D, Puybasset L. Prevention of external ventricular drain-related ventriculitis. Acta Neurochir. 2005;147(1):39–45. doi:10.1007/s00701-004-0416-z
  • Alleyne CH Jr, Hassan M, Zabramski JM. The efficacy and cost of prophylactic and perioprocedural antibiotics in patients with external ventricular drains. Neurosurgery. 2000;47(5):1124–1127. doi:10.1097/00006123-200011000-00020
  • Poon WS, Ng S, Wai S. CSF antibiotic prophylaxis for neurosurgical patients with ventriculostomy: a randomised study. Acta Neurochir Suppl. 1998;71:146–148.
  • Ratilal B, Costa J, Sampaio C. Antibiotic prophylaxis for surgical introduction of intracranial ventricular shunts. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006;3:CD005365.
  • Fried HI, Nathan BR, Rowe AS, et al. The insertion and management of external ventricular drains: an evidence-based consensus statement. A statement for healthcare professionals from the neurocritical care society. Neurocrit Care. 2016;24(1):61–81. doi:10.1007/s12028-015-0224-8
  • Zabramski JM, Whiting D, Darouiche RO, et al. Efficacy of antimicrobial-impregnated external ventricular drain catheters: a prospective, randomized, controlled trial. J Neurosurg. 2003;98(4):725–730. doi:10.3171/jns.2003.98.4.0725
  • Parker SL, McGirt MJ, Murphy JA, Megerian JT, Stout M, Engelhart L. Comparative effectiveness of antibiotic-impregnated shunt catheters in the treatment of adult and pediatric hydrocephalus: analysis of 12,589 consecutive cases from 287 US hospital systems. J Neurosurg. 2015;122(2):443–448. doi:10.3171/2014.10.JNS13395
  • Wang X, Dong Y, Qi X-Q, Li Y-M, Huang C-G, Hou L-J. Clinical review: efficacy of antimicrobial impregnated catheters in external ventricular drainage - a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care. 2013;17:234. doi:10.1186/cc12608
  • Atkinson RA, Fikrey L, Vail A, Patel HC. Silver-impregnated external-ventricular-drain-related cerebrospinal fluid infections: a meta-analysis. J Hosp Infect. 2016;92(3):263–272. doi:10.1016/j.jhin.2015.09.014
  • Attenello FJ, Garces-Ambrossi GL, Zaidi HA, Sciubba DM, Jallo GI. Hospital costs associated with shunt infections in patients receiving antibiotic-impregnated shunt catheters versus standard shunt catheters. Neurosurgery. 2010;66(2):284–289. doi:10.1227/01.NEU.0000363405.12584.4D
  • Bayston R, Ashraf W, Pelegrin I, et al. An external ventricular drainage catheter impregnated with rifampicin, trimethoprim and triclosan, with extended activity against MDR Gram-negative bacteria: an in vitro and in vivo study. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2019;74:2959–2964. doi:10.1093/jac/dkz293
  • Holloway KL, Barnes T, Choi S, et al. Ventriculostomy infections: the effect of monitoring duration and catheter exchange in 584 patients. J Neurosurg. 1996;85(3):419–424. doi:10.3171/jns.1996.85.3.0419
  • Arabi Y, Memish ZA, Balkhy HH, et al. Ventriculostomy-associated infections: incidence and risk factors. Am J Infect Control. 2005;33(3):137–143. doi:10.1016/j.ajic.2004.11.008
  • Mayhall CG, Archer NH, Lamb VA, et al. Ventriculostomy-related infections. A prospective epidemiologic study. N Engl J Med. 1984;310(9):553–559. doi:10.1056/NEJM198403013100903
  • Wong GK, Poon WS, Wai S, Yu LM, Lyon D, Lam JM. Failure of regular external ventricular drain exchange to reduce cerebrospinal fluid infection: result of a randomised controlled trial. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2002;73(6):759–761. doi:10.1136/jnnp.73.6.759
  • Chatzi M, Karvouniaris M, Makris D, et al. Bundle of measures for external cerebral ventricular drainage-associated ventriculitis. Crit Care Med. 2014;42(1):66–73. doi:10.1097/CCM.0b013e31829a70a5
  • Livesay S, Fried H, Gagnon D, et al. Clinical performance measures for neurocritical care: a statement for healthcare professionals from the neurocritical care society. Neurocrit Care. 2020;32(1):5–79. doi:10.1007/s12028-019-00846-w
  • Walek KW, Leary OP, Sastry R, Asaad WF, Walsh JM, Mermel L. Decreasing external ventricular drain infection rates in the neurocritical care unit: 12-year longitudinal experience at a single institution. World Neurosurg. 2021;150:e89–e101. doi:10.1016/j.wneu.2021.02.087
  • Thien A, Soh S, Lock C, et al. The National Neuroscience Institute External Ventricular Drain Study: a pragmatic multisite risk-stratification pathway to reduce ventriculostomy-related infection. World Neurosurg. 2020;135:e126–e136. doi:10.1016/j.wneu.2019.11.070
  • Yang LY, Wang R, Song P-X, et al. Impact of an educational program on reducing health care-associated meningitis or ventriculitis in the neurosurgical intensive care unit. Am J Infect Control. 2020;48(6):621–625. doi:10.1016/j.ajic.2019.10.012
  • Ates N, Kafadar A, Aygun G, Yildirim A. Usage of a bundle application process in decreasing ventriculoperitoneal shunt infections. Turk Neurosurg. 2020;30(4):550–556. doi:10.5137/1019-5149.JTN.26864-19.3
  • Whyte C, Alhasani H, Caplan R, Tully AP. Impact of an external ventricular drain bundle and limited duration antibiotic prophylaxis on drain-related infections and antibiotic resistance. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2020;190:105641. doi:10.1016/j.clineuro.2019.105641
  • Sweeney J, Zyck S, Tovar-Spinoza Z, Krishnamurthy S, Chin L, Bodman A. Evidence-based perioperative protocol for ventriculoperitoneal shunt infection reduction at a single institution. World Neurosurg. 2019;128:e814–e822. doi:10.1016/j.wneu.2019.04.261
  • Katzir M, Lefkowitz JJ, Ben-Reuven D, Fuchs SJ, Hussein K, Sviri GE. Decreasing external ventricular drain-related infection rates with duration-independent, clinically indicated criteria for drain revision: a retrospective study. World Neurosurg. 2019;131:e474–e481. doi:10.1016/j.wneu.2019.07.205
  • Roethlisberger M, Moffa G, Fisch U, et al. Effectiveness of a chlorhexidine dressing on silver-coated. external ventricular drain–associated colonization and infection: a prospective single-blinded randomized controlled clinical trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2018;67(12):1868–1877. doi:10.1093/cid/ciy393
  • Omrani O, O’Connor J, Hartley J, James G. Effect of introduction of a standardised peri-operative protocol on CSF shunt infection rate: a single-centre cohort study of 809 procedures. Child Nerv Syst. 2018;34:2407–2414. doi:10.1007/s00381-018-3953-0
  • Ershova K, Savin I, Kurdyumova N, et al. Implementing an infection control and prevention program decreases the incidence of healthcare-associated infections and resistance in a Russian neuro-ICU. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control. 2018;7:94. doi:10.1186/s13756-018-0383-4
  • Bashir A, Sørensen P. Evaluation of intraoperative glove change in prevention of postoperative cerebrospinal fluid shunt infections, and the predictors of shunt infection. Br J Neurosurg. 2017;31(4):452–458. doi:10.1080/02688697.2016.1229745
  • Camacho EF, Boszczowski I, Pinheiro Freire M, et al. Impact of an educational intervention implanted in a neurological intensive care unit on rates of infection related to external ventricular drains. PLoS One. 2013;8(2):e50708. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0050708
  • Flint AC, Rao VA, Renda NC, Faigeles BS, Lasman TE, Sheridan W. A simple protocol to prevent external ventricular drain infections. Neurosurgery. 2013;72(6):993–999. doi:10.1227/NEU.0b013e31828e8dfd
  • Kubilay Z, Amini S, Fauerbach LL, Archibald L, Friedman WA, Layon AJ. Decreasing ventricular infections through the use of a ventriculostomy placement bundle: experience at a single institution. J Neurosurg. 2013;118(3):514–520. doi:10.3171/2012.11.JNS121336
  • Lwin S, Low SW, Seng Choy DK, Yeo TT, Chou N. External ventricular drain infections: successful implementation of strategies to reduce infection rate. Singapore Med J. 2012;53(4):255–259.
  • Kestle JRW, Riva-Cambrin J, Wellons JC III, et al. A standardized protocol to reduce cerebrospinal fluid shunt infection: the hydrocephalus clinical research network quality improvement initiative. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2011;8(1):22–29. doi:10.3171/2011.4.PEDS10551
  • Williams TA, Leslie GD, Dobb GJ, Roberts B, van Heerden PV. Decrease in proven ventriculitis by reducing the frequency of cerebrospinal fluid sampling from extraventricular drains. J Neurosurg. 2011;115(5):1040–1046. doi:10.3171/2011.6.JNS11167
  • Udy AA, Roberts JA, Shorr AF, Boots RJ, Lipman J. Augmented renal clearance in septic and traumatized patients with normal plasma creatinine concentrations: identifying at-risk patients. Crit Care. 2013;17(1):R35. doi:10.1186/cc12544
  • Abdul-Aziz MH, Alffenaar JWC, Bassetti M, et al.; Infection Section of European Society of Intensive Care Medicine (ESICM); Pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic and Critically Ill Patient Study Groups of European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID); Infectious Diseases Group of International Association of Therapeutic Drug Monitoring and Clinical Toxicology (IATDMCT); Infections in the ICU and Sepsis Working Group of International Society of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy (ISAC). Antimicrobial therapeutic drug monitoring in critically ill adult patients: a Position Paper. Intensive Care Med. 2020;46(6):1127–1153. doi:10.1007/s00134-020-06050-1
  • Nau R, Sörgel F, Prange HW. Pharmacokinetic optimisation of the treatment of bacterial central nervous system infections. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1998;35(3):223–246. doi:10.2165/00003088-199835030-00005
  • Heffernan AJ, Roberts JA. Dose optimisation of antibiotics used for meningitis. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2021;34(6):581–590. doi:10.1097/QCO.0000000000000783
  • Lutsar I, McCracken GH Jr, Friedland IR. Antibiotic pharmacodynamics in cerebrospinal fluid. Clin Infect Dis. 1998;27(5):1117–1127. doi:10.1086/515003
  • Kumta N, Roberts JA, Lipman J, Cotta MO. Antibiotic distribution into cerebrospinal fluid: can dosing safely account for drug and disease factors in the treatment of ventriculostomy-associated infections? Clin Pharmacokinet. 2018;57(4):439–454. doi:10.1007/s40262-017-0588-3
  • Ziaka M, Markantonis SL, Fousteri M, et al. Combined intravenous and intraventricular administration of colistin methanesulfonate in critically ill patients with central nervous system infection. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2013;57:1938–1940. doi:10.1128/AAC.01461-12
  • Beach JE, Perrott J, Turgeon RD, Ensom MHH. Penetration of Vancomycin into the Cerebrospinal Fluid: a Systematic Review. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2017;56(12):1479–1490. doi:10.1007/s40262-017-0548-y
  • Nau R, Sörgel F, Eiffert H. Penetration of drugs through the blood-cerebrospinal fluid/blood-brain barrier for treatment of central nervous system infections. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2010;23(4):858–883. doi:10.1128/CMR.00007-10
  • Eliakim-Raz N, Lador A, Leibovici-Weissman Y, Elbaz M, Paul M, Leibovici L. Efficacy and safety of chloramphenicol: joining the revival of old antibiotics? Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2015;70:979–996. doi:10.1093/jac/dku530
  • Pfausler B, Spiss H, Dittrich P, Zeitlinger M, Schmutzhard E, Joukhadar C. Concentrations of fosfomycin in the cerebrospinal fluid of neurointensive care patients with ventriculostomy associated ventriculitis. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2004;53:848–852. doi:10.1093/jac/dkh158
  • Tsegka KG, Voulgaris GL, Kyriakidou M, Falagas ME. Intravenous fosfomycin for the treatment of patients with central nervous system infections: evaluation of the published evidence. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2020;18(7):657–668. doi:10.1080/14787210.2020.1754193
  • van de Beek D, Cabellos C, Dzupova O, et al. ESCMID guideline: diagnosis and treatment of acute bacterial meningitis. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2016;22:S37–S62. doi:10.1016/j.cmi.2016.01.007
  • Piva S, Di Paolo A, Galeotti L, et al. Daptomycin plasma and CSF levels in patients with healthcare-associated meningitis. Neurocrit Care. 2019;31(1):116–124. doi:10.1007/s12028-018-0657-y
  • Chauzy A, Nadji A, Combes J-C, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid pharmacokinetics of ceftaroline in neurosurgical patients with an external ventricular drain. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2019;74:675–681. doi:10.1093/jac/dky489
  • Matzneller P, Burian A, Zeitlinger M, Sauermann R. Understanding the activity of antibiotics in cerebrospinal fluid in vitro. Pharmacology. 2016;97(5–6):233–244. doi:10.1159/000444263
  • Nau R, Blei C, Eiffert H. Intrathecal antibacterial and antifungal therapies. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2020;33(3):e00190–19. doi:10.1128/CMR.00190-19
  • Hosmann A, Ritscher L, Burgmann H, et al. Meropenem concentrations in brain tissue of neurointensive care patients exceed CSF levels. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2021;76(11):2914–2922. doi:10.1093/jac/dkab286
  • Zheng G, Cao Y, Liu C, et al. Phenotype, molecular characterisation and risk factors for postoperative meningitis caused by ESBL-producing-Enterobacteriaceae: a six years multi-Centre comparative cohort study. BMC Infect Dis. 2021;21:85. doi:10.1186/s12879-021-05784-7
  • McCreary EK, Byers KE, Fernandes C, et al. Plasma and cerebrospinal fluid therapeutic drug monitoring of ceftolozane and tazobactam during treatment of multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa meningitis. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2020;7(12):ofaa549. doi:10.1093/ofid/ofaa549
  • Winans SA, Guerrero-Wooley RL, Park SH, et al. Continuous infusion of ceftolozane-tazobactam resulted in high cerebrospinal fluid concentrations of ceftolozane in a patient with multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa meningitis. Infection. 2021;49(2):355–359. doi:10.1007/s15010-020-01510-8
  • Kerz T, Von loewenich FD, Roberts J, Neulen A, Ringel F. Cerebrospinal fluid penetration of very high-dose meropenem: a case report. Ann Clin Microbiol Antimicrob. 2018;17(1):47. doi:10.1186/s12941-018-0299-0
  • Roujansky A, Martin M, Gomart C, Hulin A, Mounier R. Multidrug-resistant Staphylococcus epidermidis ventriculostomy-related infection successfully treated by intravenous ceftaroline after failure of daptomycin treatment. World Neurosurg. 2020;136:221–225. doi:10.1016/j.wneu.2020.01.013
  • Chen HA, Yang CJ, Tsai MS, Liao CH, Lee CH. Linezolid as salvage therapy for central nervous system infections due to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus at two medical centers in Taiwan. J Microbiol Immunol Infect. 2020;53(6):909–915. doi:10.1016/j.jmii.2020.08.004
  • Pintado V, Pazos R, Jimenez-Mejıas ME. Linezolid for therapy of Staphylococcus aureus meningitis: a cohort study of 26 patients. Infect Dis (Lond). 2020;52(11):808–815. doi:10.1080/23744235.2020.1789212
  • Mounier R, Lobo D, Hulin A, Nebbad B, Cook F, Dhonneur G. Is first line vancomycin still the best option to treat Staphylococcus healthcare-associated meningitis? World Neurosurg. 2017;9:812.e1–812.e5. doi:10.1016/j.wneu.2016.12.076
  • Tsuji BT, Pogue JM, Zavascki AP, et al. International Consensus Guidelines for the Optimal Use of the Polymyxins: endorsed by the American College of Clinical Pharmacy (ACCP), European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID), Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA), International Society for Anti-infective Pharmacology (ISAP), Society of Critical Care Medicine (SCCM), and Society of Infectious Diseases Pharmacists (SIDP). Pharmacotherapy. 2019;39(1):10–39. doi:10.1002/phar.2209
  • Paul M, Lador A, Grozinsky-Glasberg S, Leibovici L. Beta lactam antibiotic monotherapy versus beta lactam-aminoglycoside antibiotic combination therapy for sepsis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;2014(1):CD003344.
  • Saelim W, Changpradub D, Thunyaharn S, Juntanawiwat P, Nulsopapon P, Santimaleeworagun W. Colistin plus sulbactam or fosfomycin against carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii: improved efficacy or decreased risk of nephrotoxicity? Infect Chemother. 2021;53(1):128–140. doi:10.3947/ic.2021.0007
  • Nwabor OF, Terbtothakun P, Voravuthikunchai SP, Chusri S. Evaluation of the synergistic antibacterial effects of fosfomycin in combination with selected antibiotics against carbapenem–resistant Acinetobacter baumannii. Pharmaceuticals (Basel). 2021;14(3):185. doi:10.3390/ph14030185
  • Le Turnier P, Gregoire M, Deslandes G, et al.; NAMAP study group Nantes Anti-Microbial Agent Pk/PD. Should we reconsider cefazolin for treating staphylococcal meningitis? A retrospective analysis of cefazolin and cloxacillin CSF levels in patients treated for staphylococcal meningitis. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2020;26(10):1415.e1–1415.e4. doi:10.1016/j.cmi.2020.04.046
  • Roberts JA, Abdul-Aziz M-H, Davis JS, et al. Continuous versus intermittent b-Lactam infusion in severe sepsis. A meta-analysis of individual patient data from randomized trials. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2016;194(6):681–691. doi:10.1164/rccm.201601-0024OC
  • Kondo Y, Ota K, Imura H, et al. Prolonged versus intermittent β-lactam antibiotics intravenous infusion strategy in sepsis or septic shock patients: a systematic review with meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis of randomized trials. J Intensive Care. 2020;8:77. doi:10.1186/s40560-020-00490-z
  • Blassmann U, Roehr AC, Frey OR, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid penetration of meropenem in neurocritical care patients with proven or suspected ventriculitis: a prospective observational study. Crit Care. 2016;20(1):343. doi:10.1186/s13054-016-1523-y
  • Grégoire M, Gaborit B, Deschanvres C, et al. High-dosage cefazolin achieves sufficient cerebrospinal diffusion to treat an external ventricular drainage-related Staphylococcus aureus ventriculitis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2019;63(2):e01844–18. doi:10.1128/AAC.01844-18
  • Mader MM, Czorlich P, König C, et al. Intrathecal penetration of meropenem and vancomycin administered by continuous infusion in patients suffering from ventriculitis-a retrospective analysis. Acta Neurochir. 2018;160(11):2099–2105. doi:10.1007/s00701-018-3680-z
  • Blassmann U, Hope W, Roehr AC, et al. CSF penetration of vancomycin in critical care patients with proven or suspected ventriculitis: a prospective observational study. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2019;74:991–996. doi:10.1093/jac/dky543
  • Cawley MJ, Suh C, Lee S, Ackerman BH. Nontraditional dosing of ampicillin-sulbactam for multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii meningitis. Pharmacotherapy. 2002;22(4):527–532. doi:10.1592/phco.22.7.527.33676
  • Zhou Q, Wang H, Zhan T, Yang X, Wen L. Successful treatment of ventriculitis caused by MDR/XDR Gram-negative bacillus using ceftazidime/avibactam: case series and literature review. Infect Drug Resist. 2021;14:1691–1701. doi:10.2147/IDR.S306222
  • Kullar R, Chin JN, Edwards DJ, Parker D, Coplin WM, Rybak MJ. Pharmacokinetics of single-dose daptomycin in patients with suspected or confirmed neurological infections. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2011;55(7):3505–3509. doi:10.1128/AAC.01741-10
  • De Pascale G, Montini L, Pennisi MA, et al. High dose tigecycline in critically ill patients with severe infections due to multidrug-resistant bacteria. Crit Care. 2014;18:R90. doi:10.1186/cc13858
  • Khanum I, Ilyas A, Ali F. Stenotrophomonas maltophilia meningitis – a case series and review of the literature. Cureus. 2020;12(10):e11221. doi:10.7759/cureus.11221
  • Brown GR. Cotrimoxazole - optimal dosing in the critically ill. Ann Intensive Care. 2014;4:13. doi:10.1186/2110-5820-4-13
  • Falcone M, Daikos GL, Tiseo G, et al. Efficacy of ceftazidime-avibactam plus aztreonam in patients with bloodstream infections caused by MBL-producing Enterobacterobacterales. Clin Infect Dis. 2021;72(11):1871–1878. doi:10.1093/cid/ciaa586
  • Lee BJ, Vu BN, Seddon AN, Hodgson HA, Wang SA. Treatment considerations for CNS infections caused by vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium: a focused review of linezolid and daptomycin. Ann Pharmacother. 2020;54(12):1243–1251. doi:10.1177/1060028020932513
  • Young EJ, Ratner RE, Clarridge JE. Staphylococcal ventriculitis treated with vancomycin. South Med J. 1981;74(8):1014–1015. doi:10.1097/00007611-198108000-00039
  • Kaiser AB, McGee ZA. Aminoglycoside therapy of gram-negative bacillary meningitis. N Engl J Med. 1975;293:1215–1220. doi:10.1056/NEJM197512112932401
  • Remeš F, Tomáš R, Jindrák V, Vaniš V, Šetlík M. Intraventricular and lumbar intrathecal administration of antibiotics in postneurosurgical patients with meningitis and/or ventriculitis in a serious clinical state. J Neurosurg. 2013;119(6):1596–1602. doi:10.3171/2013.6.JNS122126
  • Wilkie MD, Hanson MF, Statham PF, Brennan PM. Infections of cerebrospinal fluid diversion devices in adults: the role of intraventricular antimicrobial therapy. J Infect. 2013;66:239–246. doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2012.11.006
  • Bayston R, Hart CA, Barnicoat M. Intraventricular vancomycin in the treatment of ventriculitis associated with cerebrospinal fluid shunting and drainage. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1987;50(11):1419–1423. doi:10.1136/jnnp.50.11.1419
  • Denetclaw TH, Suehiro I, Wang PK, Tolliver GL. Successful treatment of ventriculostomy-associated meningitis caused by multidrug resistant coagulase-negative Staphylococcus epidermidis using low-volume intrathecal daptomycin and loading strategy. Ann Pharmacother. 2014;48(10):1376–1379. doi:10.1177/1060028014542634
  • Tängdén T, Enblad P, Ullberg M, Sjölin J. Neurosurgical gram-negative bacillary ventriculitis and meningitis: a retrospective study evaluating the efficacy of intraventricular gentamicin therapy in 31 consecutive cases. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52(11):1310–1316. doi:10.1093/cid/cir197
  • Wang JH, Lin PC, Chou CH, et al. Intraventricular antimicrobial therapy in postneurosurgical gram-negative bacillary meningitis or ventriculitis: a hospital based retrospective study. J Microbiol Immunol Infect. 2014;47:204–210. doi:10.1016/j.jmii.2012.08.028
  • Karaiskos I, Galani L, Baziaka F, Giamarellou H. Intraventricular and intrathecal colistin as the last therapeutic resort for the treatment of multidrug resistant and extensively drug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii ventriculitis and meningitis: a literature review. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2013;41:499–508. doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2013.02.006
  • European Medicines Agency completes review of polymyxin-based medicines [homepage on the Internet]. Recommendations issued for safe use in patients with serious infections resistant to standard antibiotics. European Medicines Agency completes review of polymyxin-based medicines | European Medicines Agency (europa.eu); October 10, 2021.
  • Pan S, Huang X, Wang Y, et al. Efficacy of intravenous plus intrathecal/intracerebral ventricle injection of polymyxin B for post-neurosurgical intracranial infections due to MDR/XDR Acinectobacter baumannii: a retrospective cohort study. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control. 2018;7:8. doi:10.1186/s13756-018-0305-5
  • Tsolaki V, Karvouniaris M, Manoulakas E, et al. Intraventricular CNS treatment with Colistin-Tigecycline combination: a case series. J Crit Care. 2018;47:338–341. doi:10.1016/j.jcrc.2018.07.025
  • Şahin A, Dalgic N. Intraventricular plus intravenous tigecycline for the treatment of daptomycin nonsusceptible vancomycin-resistant enterococci in an infant with ventriculoperitoneal shunt infection. World Neurosurg. 2019;130:470–473. doi:10.1016/j.wneu.2019.07.045
  • Imberti R, Cusato M, Accetta G, et al. Pharmacokinetics of colistin in cerebrospinal fluid after intraventricular administration of colistin methanesulfonate. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2012;56(8):4416–4421. doi:10.1128/AAC.00231-12
  • LeBras M, Chow I, Mabasa VH, Ensom MH. Systematic review of efficacy, pharmacokinetics, and administration of intraventricular aminoglycosides in adults. Neurocrit Care. 2016;25:492–507. doi:10.1007/s12028-016-0269-3
  • Karaiskos I, Galani L, Baziaka F, et al. Successful treatment of extensively drug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii ventriculitis and meningitis with intraventricular colistin after application of a loading dose: a case series. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2013;41(6):480–483. doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2013.02.010
  • Lewin JJ III, Cook AM, Gonzales C, et al. Current practices of intraventricular antibiotic therapy in the treatment of meningitis and ventriculitis: results from a multicenter retrospective cohort study. Neurocrit Care. 2019;30(3):609–616. doi:10.1007/s12028-018-0647-0
  • Brotis AG, Churis I, Karvouniaris M. Local complications of adjunct intrathecal antibiotics for nosocomial meningitis associated with gram-negative pathogens: a meta-analysis. Neurosurg Rev. 2021;44(1):139–152. doi:10.1007/s10143-019-01226-w
  • Lang M, Habboub G, Moore NZ, et al. Neuroendoscopic evacuation of intraventricular empyema using a side-cutting aspiration device. J Clin Neurosci. 2018;47:323–327. doi:10.1016/j.jocn.2017.09.029
  • Qin G, Liang Y, Xu K, et al. Neuroendoscopic lavage for ventriculitis: case report and literature review. Neurochirurgie. 2020;66:127–132. doi:10.1016/j.neuchi.2019.12.005
  • Wang F, Yao X-Y, Zou Z-R, Yu H-L, Sun T. Management of pyogenic cerebral ventriculitis by neuroendoscopic surgery. World Neurosurg. 2017;98:6–13. doi:10.1016/j.wneu.2016.10.103
  • Yuen J, Chen B, Brent A, Plaha P. Endoscopic washout for medically refractory cerebral ventriculitis. J Neurosurg Sci. 2018;62(4):523–526. doi:10.23736/S0390-5616.17.03967-4
  • Chen F, Deng X, Wang Z, Wang L, Wang K, Gao L. Treatment of severe ventriculitis caused by extensively drug resistant Acinetobacter baumannii by intraventricular lavage and administration of colistin. Infect Drug Resist. 2019;12:241–247. doi:10.2147/IDR.S186646
  • Sharma R, Goda R, Borkar SA, et al. Outcome following postneurosurgical Acinetobacter meningitis: an institutional experience of 72 cases. Neurosurg Focus. 2019;47(2):E8. doi:10.3171/2019.5.FOCUS19278
  • Shi Y, Zheng G, Qian L, Qsman RA, Li G, Zhang G. Longitudinal analysis of risk factors for clinical outcomes of Enterobacteriaceae meningitis/encephalitis in post-neurosurgical patients: a comparative cohort study during 2014–2019. Infect Drug Resist. 2020;13:2161–2170. doi:10.2147/IDR.S252331
  • Ceylan B, Arslan F, Sipahi OR, et al. Variables determining mortality in patients with Acinetobacter baumannii meningitis/ventriculitis treated with intrathecal colistin. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2017;153:43–49. doi:10.1016/j.clineuro.2016.12.006
  • Murthy SB, Moradiya Y, Shah J, Hanley DF, Ziai WC. Incidence, predictors, and outcomes of ventriculostomy-associated infections in spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage. Neurocrit Care. 2016;24(3):389–396. doi:10.1007/s12028-015-0199-5
  • Habib OB, Srihawan C, Salazar L, Hasbun R. Prognostic impact of healthcare-associated meningitis in adults with intracranial hemorrhage. World Neurosurg. 2017;107:772–777. doi:10.1016/j.wneu.2017.08.118