260
Views
20
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

The Relationship Between Vitamin D and Infections Including COVID-19: Any Hopes?

ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, , ORCID Icon & ORCID Icon show all
Pages 3849-3870 | Published online: 24 Jul 2021

References

  • Aranow C. Vitamin D and the immune system. J Invest Med. 2011;59(6):881–886. doi:10.2310/JIM.0b013e31821b8755
  • Grant WB, Lahore H, McDonnell SL, et al. Evidence that vitamin d supplementation could reduce risk of influenza and covid-19 infections and deaths. Nutrients. 2020. doi:10.3390/nu12040988
  • Ilie PC, Stefanescu S, Smith L. The role of vitamin D in the prevention of coronavirus disease 2019 infection and mortality. Aging Clin Exp Res. 2020;32(7):1195–1198. doi:10.1007/s40520-020-01570-8
  • Ali N. Role of vitamin D in preventing of COVID-19 infection, progression and severity. J Infect Public Health. 2020;13(10):1373–1380. doi:10.1016/j.jiph.2020.06.021
  • Palacios C. Is vitamin D deficiency a major global public health problem? J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2014.
  • Edwards MH. The Global Epidemiology Of Vitamin D Status Jarcp The Journal Of Aging Research And Clinical Practice. J Aging Res Clin Pract. 2014.
  • Lips P, Cashman KD, Lamberg-Allardt C, et al. Current Vitamin D status in European and Middle East countries and strategies to prevent Vitamin D deficiency: a position statement of the European Calcified Tissue Society. Eur J Endocrinol. 2019. doi:10.1530/EJE-18-0736
  • Carmeliet G, Dermauw V, Bouillon R. Vitamin D signaling in calcium and bone homeostasis: a delicate balance. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2015;29(4):621–631. doi:10.1016/j.beem.2015.06.001
  • Lerner V, Miodownik C. Vitamin D Deficiency. J Infect Public Health. 2012. doi:10.5005/jp/books/11937_24
  • Souberbielle JC, Body JJ, Lappe JM, et al. Vitamin D and musculoskeletal health, cardiovascular disease, autoimmunity and cancer: recommendations for clinical practice. Autoimmun Rev. 2010;9(11):709–715. doi:10.1016/j.autrev.2010.06.009
  • Christakos S, Ajibade DV, Dhawan P, Fechner AJ, Mady LJ. Vitamin D: metabolism. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 2010;39(2):243–253. doi:10.1016/j.ecl.2010.02.002
  • Christakos S, Dhawan P, Verstuyf A, Verlinden L, Carmeliet G. Vitamin D: metabolism, molecular mechanism of action, and pleiotropic effects. Physiol Rev. 2015. doi:10.1152/physrev.00014.2015
  • Á G, Plaza-Diaz J, Mesa MD. Vitamin D: classic and Novel Actions. Ann Nutr Metab. 2018;72(2):87–95. doi:10.1159/000486536
  • Schramm S, Lahner H, Jöckel KH, Erbel R, Führer D, Moebus S. Impact of season and different vitamin D thresholds on prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in epidemiological cohorts—a note of caution. Endocrine. 2017;56(3):658–666. doi:10.1007/s12020-017-1292-7
  • Marino R, Misra M. Extra-skeletal effects of vitamin D. Nutrients. 2019;11(7):1460. doi:10.3390/nu11071460
  • Li Y, Ding S. Serum 25-Hydroxyvitamin D and the risk of mortality in adult patients with Sepsis: a meta-analysis. BMC Infect Dis. 2020;20(1):1–10.
  • Gombart AF. The vitamin D-antimicrobial peptide pathway and its role in protection against infection. Future Microbiol. 2009;4(9):1151–1165. doi:10.2217/fmb.09.87
  • Baeke F, Takiishi T, Korf H, Gysemans C, Mathieu C. Vitamin D: modulator of the immune system. Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2010;10(4):482–496. doi:10.1016/j.coph.2010.04.001
  • Zhu J, Deluca HF. Vitamin D 25-hydroxylase - Four decades of searching, are we there yet? Arch Biochem Biophys. 2012;523(1):30–36. doi:10.1016/j.abb.2012.01.013
  • Zhu JG, Ochalek JT, Kaufmann M, Jones G, DeLuca HF. CYP2R1 is a major, but not exclusive, contributor to 25-hydroxyvitamin D production in vivo. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2013;110(39):15650–15655. doi:10.1073/pnas.1315006110
  • Paz Ocaranza M, Riquelme JA, García L, et al. Counter-regulatory renin–angiotensin system in cardiovascular disease. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2020;17(2):116–129. doi:10.1038/s41569-019-0244-8
  • Haussler MR, McCain TA. Basic and Clinical Concepts Related to Vitamin D Metabolism and Action. N Engl J Med. 1977. doi:10.1056/nejm197711032971804
  • Henry HL. Regulation of vitamin D metabolism. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;25(4):531–541. doi:10.1016/j.beem.2011.05.003
  • Holick MF, Binkley NC, Bischoff-Ferrari HA, et al. Evaluation, treatment, and prevention of vitamin D deficiency: an endocrine society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96(7):1911–1930. doi:10.1210/jc.2011-0385
  • Jones G, Strugnell SA, DeLuca HF. Current understanding of the molecular actions of vitamin D. Physiol Rev. 1998;78(4):1193–1231. doi:10.1152/physrev.1998.78.4.1193
  • Seamans KM, Cashman KD. Existing and potentially novel functional markers of vitamin D status: a systematic review. Am J Clin Nutrition. 2009;89(6):1997S–2008S. doi:10.3945/ajcn.2009.27230D
  • Plum LA, DeLuca HF. The functional metabolism and molecular biology of vitamin D action. In: Vitamin D. Springer; 2010:61–97.
  • Haussler MR, Haussler CA, Jurutka PW, et al. The vitamin D hormone and its nuclear receptor: molecular actions and disease states. J Endocrinol. 1997. doi:10.1677/joe.0.154S057
  • Feldman D, Krishnan AV, Swami S. Vitamin D. Biology, Actions, and Clinical Implications. Osteoporosis. 2013. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-415853-5.00013-3
  • Wang Y, Zhu J, DeLuca HF. Where is the vitamin D receptor? Arch Biochem Biophys. 2012. doi:10.1016/j.abb.2012.04.001
  • Daniel A. 1-s2.0-S0891584901004804-main.pdf. Free Radic Biol Med. 2001;30(11):1191–1212. doi:10.1016/s0891-5849(01)00480-4
  • Hammond CL, Lee TK, Ballatori N. Novel roles for glutathione in gene expression, cell death, and membrane transport of organic solutes. J Hepatol. 2001;34(6):946–954. doi:10.1016/S0168-8278(01)00037-X
  • Ratnayake S, Dias IHK, Lattman E, Griffiths HR. Stabilising cysteinyl thiol oxidation and nitrosation for proteomic analysis. J Proteomics. 2013;92:160–170. doi:10.1016/j.jprot.2013.06.019
  • Curtis JM, Hahn WS, Long EK, Burrill JS, Arriaga EA, Bernlohr DA. Protein carbonylation and metabolic control systems. Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2012;23(8):399–406. doi:10.1016/j.tem.2012.05.008
  • Dalle-Donne I, Rossi R, Giustarini D, Milzani A, Colombo R. Protein carbonyl groups as biomarkers of oxidative stress. Clin Chim Acta. 2003;329(1–2):23–38. doi:10.1016/S0009-8981(03)00003-2
  • Barreiro E, Hussain SNA. Protein carbonylation in skeletal muscles: impact on function. Antioxidants Redox Signal. 2010;12(3):417–429. doi:10.1089/ars.2009.2808
  • Ballatori N, Krance SM, Notenboom S, Shi S, Tieu K, Hammond CL. Glutathione dysregulation and the etiology and progression of human diseases. Biol Chem. 2009;390(3):191–214. doi:10.1515/BC.2009.033
  • Grant WB, Al Anouti F, Moukayed M. Targeted 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration measurements and vitamin D3 supplementation can have important patient and public health benefits. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2020;74(3):366–376. doi:10.1038/s41430-020-0564-0
  • Posner J, Bradley S, Peterson JAR. NIH jessica. Bone. 2008;23(1):1–7. doi:10.1111/cen.12449.Vitamin
  • Farhangi MA, Najafi M. Dietary total antioxidant capacity (TAC) among candidates for coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) surgery: emphasis to possible beneficial role of TAC on serum vitamin D. PLoS One. 2018;13(12):1–13. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0208806
  • Jain SK, Kanikarla-Marie P, Warden C, Micinski D. L-cysteine supplementation upregulates glutathione (GSH) and vitamin D binding protein (VDBP) in hepatocytes cultured in high glucose and in vivo in liver, and increases blood levels of GSH, VDBP, and 25-hydroxy-vitamin D in Zucker diabetic fatty rats. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2016;60(5):1090–1098. doi:10.1002/mnfr.201500667
  • Lei G, Zhang C, Cheng B, Lee C. crossm Supplemental Therapy for Pneumocystis. J Med. 2017;61(10):1–13.
  • Journal E. Global epidemic of coronavirus-COVID-19: what can we do to minimize risks. Eur J Biomed Pharm Sci. 2020;7(3):432–438.
  • Grad R. Cod and the consumptive: a brief history of cod-liver oil in the treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis. Pharm Hist. 2004;46(3):106–120.
  • Bikle DD. Vitamin D and immune function: understanding common pathways. Curr Osteoporos Rep. 2009;7(2):58–63. doi:10.1007/s11914-009-0011-6
  • Sigmundsdottir H, Pan J, Debes GF, et al. DCs metabolize sunlight-induced vitamin D3 to “program” T cell attraction to the epidermal chemokine CCL27. Nat Immunol. 2007;8(3):285–293. doi:10.1038/ni1433
  • Bikle DD, Pillai S, Gee E, Hincenbergs M. Regulation of 1, 25-dihydroxyvitamin d production in human keratinocytes by interferon-γ. Endocrinology. 1989;124(2):655–660. doi:10.1210/endo-124-2-655
  • Bikle DD, Pillai S, Gee E, Hincenbergs M. Tumor necrosis factor-α Regulation of 1, 25-Dihydroxy vitamin D production by Human Keratinocytes. Endocrinology. 1991;129(1):33–38. doi:10.1210/endo-129-1-33
  • Medzhitov R. Recognition of microorganisms and activation of the immune response. Nature. 2007;449(7164):819–826. doi:10.1038/nature06246
  • Liu PT, Stenger S, Li H, et al. Toll-like receptor triggering of a vitamin D-mediated human antimicrobial response. Science. 2006;311(5768):1770–1773. doi:10.1126/science.1123933
  • Schauber J, Dorschner RA, Coda AB, et al. Injury enhances TLR2 function and antimicrobial peptide expression through a vitamin D-dependent mechanism. J Clin Invest. 2007;117(3):803–811. doi:10.1172/JCI30142
  • Rook GA, Steele J, Fraher L, et al. Vitamin D3, gamma interferon, and control of proliferation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis by human monocytes. Immunology. 1986.
  • Cadranel J, Milleron B, Garabedian M, Aroun G. Serum concentrations of vitaniin D metabolites in untreated tuberculosis. Thorax. 1985;40(8):639–640. doi:10.1136/thx.40.8.639-b
  • Ong PY, Ohtake T, Brandt C, et al. Endogenous Antimicrobial Peptides and Skin Infections in Atopic Dermatitis. N Engl J Med. 2002;347(15):1151–1160. doi:10.1056/nejmoa021481
  • Salahuddin N, Ali F, Hasan Z, Rao N, Aqeel M, Mahmood F. Vitamin D accelerates clinical recovery from tuberculosis: results of the SUCCINCT Study [Supplementary Cholecalciferol in recovery from tuberculosis]. A randomized, placebo-controlled, clinical trial of vitamin D supplementation in patients with pulmonar. BMC Infect Dis. 2013;13(1). doi:10.1186/1471-2334-13-22
  • Tukvadze N, Sanikidze E, Kipiani M, et al. High-dose Vitamin D3 in adults with pulmonary tuberculosis: a double-blind randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2015;102(5):1059–1069. doi:10.3945/ajcn.115.113886
  • Cantorna MT, Snyder L, Lin YD, Yang L. Vitamin D and 1,25(OH)2D regulation of T cells. Nutrients. 2015;7(4):3011–3021. doi:10.3390/nu7043011
  • Mora JR, Iwata M, Von AUH. Vitamin effects on the immune system. Nat Rev Immunol. 2008;8(9):685–698. doi:10.1038/nri2378.Vitamin
  • Daniel C, Sartory NA, Zahn N, Radeke HH, Stein JM. Immune modulatory treatment of trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid colitis with calcitriol is associated with a change of a T helper (Th) 1/Th17 to a Th2 and regulatory T cell profile. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2008;324(1):23–33. doi:10.1124/jpet.107.127209
  • Adorini L, Penna G. Dendritic cell tolerogenicity: a key mechanism in immunomodulation by vitamin D receptor agonists. Hum Immunol. 2009;70(5):345–352. doi:10.1016/j.humimm.2009.01.016
  • Overbergh L, Decallonne B, Waer M, et al. Immune Shift in NOD Mice Immunized. Prism. 2014. 65;Il:1301–1307.
  • Veldman CM, Cantorna MT, DeLuca HF. Expression of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 receptor in the immune system. Arch Biochem Biophys. 2000;374(2):334–338. doi:10.1006/abbi.1999.1605
  • Babbe H, Roers A, Waisman A, et al. Clonal expansions of CD8+ T cells dominate the T cell infiltrate in active multiple sclerosis lesions as shown by micromanipulation and single cell polymerase chain reaction. J Exp Med. 2000;192(3):393–404. doi:10.1084/jem.192.3.393
  • Dall’Ara F, Andreoli L, Piva N, Piantoni S, Franceschini F, Tincani A. Winter lupus flares are associated with low vitamin D levels in a retrospective longitudinal study of Italian adult patients. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 2015;33(2):153–158.
  • Mok CC, Bro ET, Ho LY, Singh RJ, Jannetto PJ. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 levels and flares of systemic lupus erythematosus: a longitudinal cohort analysis. Clin Rheumatol. 2018;37(10):2685–2692. doi:10.1007/s10067-018-4204-1
  • Buondonno I, Rovera G, Sassi F, et al. Vitamin D and immunomodulation in early rheumatoid arthritis: a randomized doubleblind placebo-controlled study. PLoS One. 2017;12(6):1–18. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0178463
  • Chen S, Sims GP, Chen XX, Gu YY, Chen S, Lipsky PE. Modulatory Effects of 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D 3 on Human B Cell Differentiation. J Immunol. 2007;179(3):1634–1647. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.179.3.1634
  • Lemire JM, Adams JS, Sakai R, Jordan SC. 1α,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 suppresses proliferation and immunoglobulin production by normal human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. J Clin Invest. 1984;74(2):657–661. doi:10.1172/JCI111465
  • Iho S, Takahashi T, Kura F, Sugiyama H, Hoshino T. The effect of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 on in vitro immunoglobulin production in human B cells. J Immunol. 1986;136(12):4427–4431.
  • Biesalski HK. Vitamin D deficiency and co-morbidities in COVID-19 patients – a fatal relationship? NFS J. 2020. doi:10.1016/j.nfs.2020.06.001
  • Hackenthal E, Paul M, Ganten D, Taugner R. Morphology, physiology, and molecular biology of renin secretion. Physiol Rev. 1990;70(4):1067–1116. doi:10.1152/physrev.1990.70.4.1067
  • Ocaranza MP, Lavandero S, Jalil JE, et al. Angiotensin-(1-9) regulates cardiac hypertrophy in vivo and in vitro. J Hypertens. 2010;28(5):1054–1064. doi:10.1097/HJH.0b013e328335d291
  • Tomaschitz A, Pilz S, Ritz E, et al. Independent association between 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, 25-hydroxyvitamin D and the renin-angiotensin system. The Ludwigshafen Risk and Cardiovascular Health (LURIC) study. Clin Chim Acta. 2010;411(17–18):1354–1360. doi:10.1016/j.cca.2010.05.037
  • Vaidya A, Forman JP, Hopkins PN, Seely EW, Williams JS. 25-Hydroxyvitamin D is associated with plasma renin activity and the pressor response to dietary sodium intake in Caucasians. JRAAS. 2011;12(3):311–319. doi:10.1177/1470320310391922
  • Burgess ED, Hawkins RG, Watanabe M. Interaction of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin d and plasma renin activity in high renin essential hypertension. Am J Hypertens. 1990;3(12_Pt_1):903–905. doi:10.1093/ajh/3.12.903
  • Li YC, Qiao G, Uskokovic M, Xiang W, Zheng W, Kong J. Vitamin D: a negative endocrine regulator of the renin-angiotensin system and blood pressure. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2004;89–90:387–392. doi:10.1016/j.jsbmb.2004.03.004
  • Yuan W, Pan W, Kong J, et al. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 suppresses renin gene transcription by blocking the activity of the cyclic AMP response element in the renin gene promoter. J Biol Chem. 2007;282(41):29821–29830. doi:10.1074/jbc.M705495200
  • Cui C, Xu P, Li G, et al. Vitamin D receptor activation regulates microglia polarization and oxidative stress in spontaneously hypertensive rats and angiotensin II-exposed microglial cells: role of renin-angiotensin system. Redox Biol. 2019;26:101295. doi:10.1016/j.redox.2019.101295
  • Cohen-Lahav M, Shany S, Tobvin D, Chaimovitz C, Douvdevani A. Vitamin D decreases NFκB activity by increasing IκBα levels. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2006;21(4):889–897. doi:10.1093/ndt/gfi254
  • Schroten NF, Ruifrok WPT, Kleijn L, et al. Short-term vitamin D3 supplementation lowers plasma renin activity in patients with stable chronic heart failure: an open-label, blinded end point, randomized prospective trial (VitD-CHF trial). Am Heart J. 2013;166(2):357–364.e2. doi:10.1016/j.ahj.2013.05.009
  • Forman JP, Williams JS, Fisher NDL. Plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D and regulation of the renin-angiotensin system in humans. Hypertension. 2010;55(5):1283–1288. doi:10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.109.148619
  • Zittermann A, Ernst JB, Prokop S, et al. Effects of Vitamin D Supplementation on Renin and Aldosterone Concentrations in Patients with Advanced Heart Failure: the EVITA Trial. Int J Endocrinol. 2018;2018:1–10. doi:10.1155/2018/5015417
  • Hong JY, Kim SY, Chung KS, et al. Association between vitamin D deficiency and tuberculosis in a Korean population. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2014;18(1):73–78. doi:10.5588/ijtld.13.0536
  • Prietl B, Treiber G, Pieber TR, Amrein K. Vitamin D and immune function. Nutrients. 2013;5(7):2502–2521. doi:10.3390/nu5072502
  • De Caterina R, Alfredo Martinez J, Kohlmeier M. Principles of Nutrigenetics and Nutrigenomics: fundamentals for Individualized Nutrition. Discov Med. 2019. doi:10.1016/C2015-0-01839-1
  • Daneshkhah A, Agrawal V, Eshein A, Subramanian H, Roy HK, Backman V. Evidence for possible association of vitamin D status with cytokine storm and unregulated inflammation in COVID-19 patients. Aging Clin Exp Res. 2020;32(10):2141–2158. doi:10.1007/s40520-020-01677-y
  • Mangin M, Sinha R, Fincher K. Inflammation and vitamin D: the infection connection. Inflamm Res. 2014;63(10):803–819. doi:10.1007/s00011-014-0755-z
  • Schleithoff SS, Zittermann A, Tenderich G, Berthold HK, Stehle P, Koerfer R. Vitamin D supplementation improves cytokine profiles in patients with congestive heart failure: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2006;83(4):754–759. doi:10.1093/ajcn/83.4.754
  • Wu S, Sun J. Vitamin D, vitamin D receptor, and macroautophagy in inflammation and infection. Discov Med. 2011;11(59):325–335.
  • Martineau AR, Wilkinson RJ, Wilkinson KA, et al. A single dose of vitamin D enhances immunity to mycobacteria. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2007;176(2):208–213. doi:10.1164/rccm.200701-007OC
  • Li G, Fan Y, Lai Y, et al. Coronavirus infections and immune responses. J Med Virol. 2020;92(4):424–432. doi:10.1002/jmv.25685
  • Kenneth Weir E, Thenappan T, Bhargava M, Chen Y. Does Vitamin D deficiency increase the severity of COVID-19? Clin Med J R Coll Physicians London. 2020. doi:10.7861/CLINMED.2020-0301
  • Beristain-Covarrubias N, Perez-Toledo M, Thomas MR, Henderson IR, Watson SP, Cunningham AF. Understanding Infection-Induced Thrombosis: lessons Learned From Animal Models. Front Immunol. 2019;10. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2019.02569
  • Dehghani K, Nowrouzi A, Hossein Pourdavood A, Rahmanian Z. Effect of Vitamin D deficiency in lower extremity and pulmonary venous thromboembolism. Biomed Res Ther. 2019;6(4):3107–3112. doi:10.15419/bmrat.v6i4.535
  • Corrales-Medina VF, Madjid M, Musher DM. Role of acute infection in triggering acute coronary syndromes. Lancet Infect Dis. 2010;10(2):83–92. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(09)70331-7
  • Mohammad S, Mishra A, Ashraf MZ. Emerging role of vitamin d and its associated molecules in pathways related to pathogenesis of thrombosis. Biomolecules. 2019;9(11):649. doi:10.3390/biom9110649
  • LaCroix AZ, Kotchen J, Anderson G, et al. Calcium plus vitamin D supplementation and mortality in postmenopausal women: the women’s health initiative calcium-vitamin D randomized controlled trial. J Gerontol. 2009;64A(5):559–567. doi:10.1093/gerona/glp006
  • Rhodes JM, Subramanian S, Laird E, Griffin G, Kenny RA. Perspective: vitamin D Deficiency and COVID-19 Severity – plausibly Linked by Latitude, Ethnicity, Impacts on Cytokines, ACE2 and Thrombosis. Journal of Internal Medicine. 2020;289(1):97–115. doi:10.1111/joim.13149
  • Ishigami J, Kou M, Ding N, Matsushita K. Cardiovascular Disease and Coronavirus Disease 2019: epidemiology, Management, and Prevention. Curr Epidemiol Reports. 2021;8(1):1–8. doi:10.1007/s40471-020-00261-2
  • Mitchell F. Vitamin-D and COVID-19: do deficient risk a poorer outcome? Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2020;8(7):570. doi:10.1016/S2213-8587(20)30183-2
  • Banerjee A, Khemka VK. Augmentation of anticoagulant effect with vitamin D: possible therapeutic target for venous thromboembolism. Int J Hematol Blood Disord. 2017;2(1):1–5. doi:10.15226/2639-7986/2/1/00106
  • McMullan CJ, Borgi L, Curhan GC, Fisher N, Forman JP. The effect of Vitamin D on renin-angiotensin system activation and blood pressure: a randomized control trial. J Hypertens. 2016;35(4):822–829. doi:10.1097/HJH.0000000000001220
  • Sundaram ME, Coleman LA. Vitamin D and In fl uenza. Advances in Nutrition (Bethesda, Md.). 2012;3(4):517–525. doi:10.3945/an.112.002162.Current
  • Urashima M, Segawa T, Okazaki M, Kurihara M, Wada Y, Ida H. Randomized trial of vitamin D supplementation to prevent seasonal influenza A in schoolchildren. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010;91(5):1255–1260. doi:10.3945/ajcn.2009.29094
  • Martineau AR, Jolliffe DA, Hooper RL, et al. Vitamin D supplementation to prevent acute respiratory tract infections: systematic review and meta-analysis of individual participant data. BMJ. 2017;356:356. doi:10.1136/bmj.i6583
  • Cannell JJ, Vieth R, Umhau JC, et al. Epidemic influenza and vitamin D. Epidemiol Infect. 2006;134(6):1129–1140. doi:10.1017/S0950268806007175
  • Cannell JJ, Zasloff M, Garland CF, Scragg R, Giovannucci E. On the epidemiology of influenza. Virol J. 2008;5(1):29. doi:10.1186/1743-422X-5-29
  • Vieth R. Vitamin D supplementation, 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations, and safety. Am J Clin Nutr. 1999;69(5):842–856. doi:10.1093/ajcn/69.5.842
  • World Health Organization. 2020 W. Global Tuberculosis Report 2020. J Chem Inf Model. 2020.
  • Zhai W, Wu F, Zhang Y, Fu Y, Liu Z. The immune escape mechanisms of Mycobacterium Tuberculosis. Int J Mol Sci. 2019;20(2):2. doi:10.3390/ijms20020340
  • Sia JK, Rengarajan J. Immunology of mycobacterium tuberculosis infections. Gram-Positive Pathog. 2019;1056–1086. doi:10.1128/9781683670131.ch64
  • Mily A, Rekha RS, Kamal SMM, et al. Significant effects of oral phenylbutyrate and Vitamin D3 adjunctive therapy in pulmonary tuberculosis: a randomized controlled trial. PLoS One. 2015;10(9):1–25. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0138340
  • Tyagi G, Singh P, Varma-Basil M, Bose M. Role of Vitamins B, C, and D in the fight against tuberculosis. Int J Mycobacteriology. 2017. doi:10.4103/ijmy.ijmy_80_17
  • Nnoaham KE, Clarke A. Low serum vitamin D levels and tuberculosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Epidemiol. 2008;37(1):113–119. doi:10.1093/ije/dym247
  • Zhang Y, Zhu H, Yang X, et al. Serum Vitamin D level and Vitamin D receptor genotypes may be associated with tuberculosis clinical characteristics A case-control study. Med. 2018. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000011732
  • Ayelign B, Workneh M, Molla MD, Dessie G. Role of vitamin-D supplementation in TB/HIV co-infected patients. Infect Drug Resist. 2020;Volume 13:111–118. doi:10.2147/IDR.S228336
  • Talat N, Perry S, Parsonnet J, Dawood G, Hussain R. Vitamin D deficiency and tuberculosis progression. Emerg Infect Dis. 2010;16(5):853–855. doi:10.3201/eid1605.091693
  • Gou X, Pan L, Tang F, Gao H, Xiao D. The association between Vitamin D status and tuberculosis in children: a meta-analysis. Med. 2018. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000012179
  • Aibana O, Huang CC, Aboud S, et al. Vitamin D status and risk of incident tuberculosis disease: a nested case-control study, systematic review, and individualparticipant data meta-analysis. PLoS Med. 2019;16(9):1–26. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1002907
  • Michos ED. Vitamin D deficiency and the risk of tuberculosis: a meta-analysis. Future Cardiol. 2009;5(1):15–18. doi:10.2217/14796678.5.1.15
  • Ganmaa D, Initiative MH, Uyanga B, et al. HHS Public Access. Nutr Rev. 2021;383(4):359–368. DOI:10.1056/NEJMoa1915176.Vitamin
  • Brighenti S, Bergman P, Martineau AR. Vitamin D and tuberculosis: where next? J Intern Med. 2018;284(2):145–162. doi:10.1111/joim.12777
  • Ralph AP, Waramori G, Pontororing GJ, et al. L-arginine and Vitamin D Adjunctive Therapies in Pulmonary Tuberculosis: a Randomised, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial. PLoS One. 2013;8(8):e70032. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0070032
  • Mansueto P, Seidita A, Vitale G, Gangemi S, Iaria C, Cascio A. Vitamin D deficiency in HIV infection: not only a bone disorder. Biomed Res Int. 2015;2015:1–18. doi:10.1155/2015/735615
  • Deeks SG. Systemic Effects of Inflammation on Health during Chronic. Infection. 2014;39(4):633–645. doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2013.10.001.Systemic
  • Villamor E. A potential role for vitamin D on HIV infection? Nutr Rev. 2006;64(5):226–233. doi:10.1301/nr.2006.may.226-233
  • Röling J, Schmid H, Fischereder M, Draenert R, Goebel FD. HIV-associated renal diseases and highly active antiretroviral therapy-induced nephropathy. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;42(10):1488–1495. doi:10.1086/503566
  • Mehta S, Mugusi FM, Spiegelman D, et al. Vitamin D status and its association with morbidity including wasting and opportunistic illnesses in HIV-infected women in Tanzania. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2011;25(10):579–585. doi:10.1089/apc.2011.0182
  • Von Essen MR, Kongsbak M, Schjerling P, Olgaard K, Ødum N, Geisler C. Vitamin D controls T cell antigen receptor signaling and activation of human T cells. Nat Immunol. 2010;11(4):344–349. doi:10.1038/ni.1851
  • Haug CJ, Müller F, Aukrust P, Frøland SS. Different effect of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 on replication of Mycobacterium avium in monocyte-derived macrophages from human immunodeficiency virus-infected subjects and healthy controls. Immunol Lett. 1998;63(2):107–112. doi:10.1016/S0165-2478(98)00065-0
  • Aguilar-Jimenez W, Villegas-Ospina S, Gonzalez S, et al. Precursor forms of Vitamin D reduce HIV-1 infection in vitro. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2016;73(5):497–506. doi:10.1097/QAI.0000000000001150
  • Viard JP, Souberbielle JC, Kirk O, et al. Vitamin D and clinical disease progression in HIV infection: results from the EuroSIDA study. Aids. 2011;25(10):1305–1315. doi:10.1097/QAD.0b013e328347f6f7
  • Aziz M, Livak B, Burke-Miller J, et al. Vitamin D insufficiency may impair CD4 recovery among Women’s Interagency HIV Study participants with advanced disease on HAART. Aids. 2013;27(4):573–578. doi:10.1097/QAD.0b013e32835b9ba1
  • Haug C, Müller F, Aukrust P, Frøland SS. Subnormal serum concentration of 1, 25-vitamin d in human immunodeficiency virus infection: correlation with degree of immune deficiency and survival. J Infect Dis. 1994;169(4):889–893. doi:10.1093/infdis/169.4.889
  • Baker JV, Peng G, Rapkin J, et al. CD4+ count and risk of non-AIDS diseases following initial treatment for HIV infection. Aids. 2008;22(7):841–848. doi:10.1097/QAD.0b013e3282f7cb76
  • Jiménez-Sousa M, Martínez I, Medrano LM, Fernández-Rodríguez A, Resino S. Vitamin D in human immunodeficiency virus infection: influence on immunity and disease. Front Immunol. 2018;9(MAR). doi:10.3389/fimmu.2018.00458
  • Tenforde MW, Yadav A, Dowdy DW, et al. Vitamin A and D Deficiencies Associated with Incident Tuberculosis in HIV-Infected Patients Initiating Antiretroviral Therapy in Multinational Case-Cohort Study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2017;75(3):e71–e79. doi:10.1097/QAI.0000000000001308
  • Coelho L, Cardoso SW, Luz PM, et al. Vitamin D3 supplementation in HIV infection: effectiveness and associations with antiretroviral therapy. Nutr J. 2015;14(1):1–9. doi:10.1186/s12937-015-0072-6
  • Dougherty KA, Schall JI, Zemel BS, et al. Safety and efficacy of high-dose daily vitamin D3 supplementation in children and young adults infected with human immunodeficiency virus. J Pediatric Infect Dis Soc. 2014;3(4):294–303. doi:10.1093/jpids/piu012
  • WHO. WHO Director-General’s opening remarks at the media briefing on COVID-19 - March 2020 - World | reliefWeb. 2020. Available from: https://reliefweb.int/report/world/who-director-generals-opening-remarks-media-briefing-covid-19-4-december-2020. Accessed February 25, 2021.
  • Cucinotta D, Vanelli M. WHO declares COVID-19 a pandemic. Acta Biomed. 2020;91(1):157–160. doi:10.23750/abm.v91i1.9397
  • Peiris JSM, Guan Y, Yuen KY. Severe acute respiratory syndrome. Nat Med. 2004;10(12S):S88–S97. doi:10.1038/nm1143
  • Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet. 2020;395(10223):497–506. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-5
  • Xu Z, Shi L, Wang Y, et al. Pathological findings of COVID-19 associated with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Lancet Respir Med. 2020;8(4):420–422. doi:10.1016/S2213-2600(20)30076-X
  • Chan JFW, Yuan S, Kok KH, et al. A familial cluster of pneumonia associated with the 2019 novel coronavirus indicating person-to-person transmission: a study of a family cluster. Lancet. 2020;395(10223):514–523. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30154-9
  • Middeldorp S, Coppens M, van Haaps TF, et al. Incidence of venous thromboembolism in hospitalized patients with COVID-19. J Thromb Haemost. 2020;18(8):1995–2002. doi:10.1111/jth.14888
  • Ahmed M, Sultana M. COVID-19 Pneumonia Complicated by Acute Pulmonary Embolism. J Bangladesh Coll Physicians Surg. 2020;82–83. doi:10.3329/jbcps.v38i0.47348
  • Sungnak W, Huang N, Bécavin C, et al. SARS-CoV-2 entry factors are highly expressed in nasal epithelial cells together with innate immune genes. Nat Med. 2020;26(5):681–687. doi:10.1038/s41591-020-0868-6
  • Kokubu T, Takada Y. Angiotensin converting enzyme. Nippon Rinsho Japanese J Clin Med. 1982;40(9):1956–1963. doi:10.1161/circulationaha.120.047049
  • Coperchini F, Chiovato L, Croce L, Magri F, Rotondi M. ThecytokinestorminCOVID-19:Anoverviewoftheinvolvementofthechemokine/chemokine-receptorsyste. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 2020;53:25–32. doi:10.1016/j.cytogfr.2020.05.003
  • Channappanavar R, Perlman S. Pathogenic human coronavirus infections: causes and consequences of cytokine storm and immunopathology. Semin Immunopathol. 2017;39(5):529–539. doi:10.1007/s00281-017-0629-x
  • Clerkin KJ, Fried JA, Raikhelkar J, et al. COVID-19 and Cardiovascular Disease. Circulation. 2020;2019:1648–1655. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.120.046941
  • Li X, Geng M, Peng Y, Meng L, Lu S. Molecular immune pathogenesis and diagnosis of COVID-19. J Pharm Anal. 2020;10(2):102–108. doi:10.1016/j.jpha.2020.03.001
  • Liu J, Wu P, Gao F, et al. Novel Immunodominant Peptide Presentation Strategy: a Featured HLA-A*2402-Restricted Cytotoxic T-Lymphocyte Epitope Stabilized by Intrachain Hydrogen Bonds from Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Nucleocapsid Protein. J Virol. 2010;84(22):11849–11857. doi:10.1128/jvi.01464-10
  • Jeffery LE, Burke F, Mura M, et al. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D 3 and IL-2 Combine to Inhibit T Cell Production of Inflammatory Cytokines and Promote Development of Regulatory T Cells Expressing CTLA-4 and FoxP3. J Immunol. 2009;183(9):5458–5467. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.0803217
  • Dimitrov V, White JH. Species-specific regulation of innate immunity by vitamin D signaling. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2016;164:246–253. doi:10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.09.016
  • Snijder EJ, van der Meer Y, Zevenhoven-Dobbe J, et al. Ultrastructure and Origin of Membrane Vesicles Associated with the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Replication Complex. J Virol. 2006;80(12):5927–5940. doi:10.1128/jvi.02501-05
  • Blanco-Melo D, Nilsson-Payant BE, Liu WC, et al. Imbalanced Host Response to SARS-CoV-2 Drives Development of COVID-19. Cell. 2020;181(5):1036–1045.e9. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2020.04.026
  • Hadjadj J, Yatim N, Barnabei L, et al. Impaired type I interferon activity and inflammatory responses in severe COVID-19 patients. Science. 2020.
  • Murdaca G, Pioggia G, Negrini S. Vitamin D and Covid-19: an update on evidence and potential therapeutic implications. Clin Mol Allergy. 2020;18(1):1–8. doi:10.1186/s12948-020-00139-0
  • Kakodkar P, Kaka N, Baig M, Comprehensive Literature A. Review on the Clinical Presentation, and Management of the Pandemic Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). Cureus. 2020;2019(4). doi:10.7759/cureus.7560
  • Zhang J, McCullough PA, Tecson KM. Vitamin D deficiency in association with endothelial dysfunction: implications for patients with COVID-19. Rev Cardiovasc Med. 2020;21(3):339–344. doi:10.31083/j.rcm.2020.03.131
  • Carter SJ, Baranauskas MN, Fly AD. Considerations for Obesity, Vitamin D, and Physical Activity Amid the COVID-19 Pandemic. Obesity. 2020;28(7):1176–1177. doi:10.1002/oby.22838
  • La Vignera S, Cannarella R, Condorelli RA, Torre F, Aversa A, Calogero AE. Sex-specific SARS-CoV2 mortality: among hormone-modulated ace2 expression, risk of venous thromboembolism and hypovitaminosis D. Int J Mol Sci. 2020;21(8):5–10. doi:10.3390/ijms21082948
  • Raharusuna P, Priambada S, Budiarti C, Agung E, Budi C. Patterns of mortality and vitamin D: an Indonesian study. Preprint. 2020.
  • Tian Y, Rong L. Letter: covid-19, and vitamin D. Authors’ reply. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2020;51(10):995–996. doi:10.1111/apt.15764
  • Xu J, Yang J, Chen J, Luo Q, Zhang Q, Zhang H. Vitamin D alleviates lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury via regulation of the renin-angiotensin system. Mol Med Rep. 2017. doi:10.3892/mmr.2017.7546
  • Grant WB, Lahore H, McDonnell SL, et al. Vitamin D Supplementation Could Prevent and Treat Influenza, Coronavirus, and Pneumonia Infections. Preprints. 2020.
  • Alipio M. Vitamin D Supplementation Could Possibly Improve Clinical Outcomes of Patients Infected with Coronavirus-2019 (COVID-2019). SSRN Electron J. 2020. doi:10.2139/ssrn.3571484
  • Murai IH, Fernandes AL, Sales LP, et al. Effect of a Single High Dose of Vitamin D3on Hospital Length of Stay in Patients with Moderate to Severe COVID-19: a Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA. 2021;325(11):1053–1060. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.26848
  • Cascella M, Rajnik M, Cuomo A, Dulebohn SC, Di Napoli R. Features, Evaluation and Treatment Coronavirus (COVID-19). StatPearls. 2020.
  • Cortegiani A, Ingoglia G, Ippolito M, Giarratano A, Einav S. Since January 2020 Elsevier has created a COVID-19 resource centre with free information in English and Mandarin on the novel coronavirus COVID- 19. The COVID-19 resource centre is hosted on Elsevier Connect, the company ’ s public news and information. J Crit Care. 2020;57(January):279–283. doi:10.1016/j.jcrc.2020.03.005
  • Xu X, Han M, Li T, et al. Effective treatment of severe COVID-19 patients with tocilizumab. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2020;117(20):10970–10975. doi:10.1073/pnas.2005615117
  • Zhang R, Wang X, Ni L, et al. COVID-19: melatonin as a potential adjuvant treatment. Life Sciences. 2020;250:117583. doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2020.117583
  • Jean -S-S, Lee P-I, Hsueh P-R. Treatment options for COVID-19: the reality and challenges. J Microbiol Immunol Infect. 2020;53(3):436. doi:10.1016/j.jmii.2020.03.034
  • Şimşek Yavuz S, Ünal S. Antiviral treatment of covid-19. Turkish J Med Sci. 2020;50(SI–1):611–619. doi:10.3906/sag-2004-145
  • Gautret P, Lagier J, Parola P, Hoang VT, Hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin as a treatment of COVID-19: results of an open-label non-randomized clinical trial. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2020;56(1):105949. doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105949
  • Geleris J, Sun Y, Platt J, et al. Observational Study of Hydroxychloroquine in Hospitalized Patients with Covid-19. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(25):2411–2418. doi:10.1056/nejmoa2012410
  • Roth A, Lütke S, Meinberger D, et al. LL-37 fights SARS-CoV-2: the vitamin D-Inducible peptide LL-37 inhibits binding of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein to its cellular receptor angiotensin converting enzyme 2 in Vitro. bioRxiv. 2020. doi:10.1101/2020.12.02.408153