Recent Advancements on COVID-19: A Comprehensive Review

References

• Lai -C-C, Liu YH, Wang C-Y, et al. Asymptomatic carrier state, acute respiratory disease, and pneumonia due to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARSCoV-2): facts and myths. J Microbiol Immunol Infect. 2020;53(3):404–412. doi:10.1016/j.jmii.2020.02.012
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Singhal T. A review of coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19). Indian J Pediatr. 2020;87(4):281–286. doi:10.1007/s12098-020-03263-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heneghan C, Brassey J, Jefferson T. COVID-19: what proportion are asymptomatic? The Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine; 2020. Available from: https://www.cebm.net/covid-19/covid-19-what-proportion-are-asymptomatic/. Accessed November 30, 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Gautret P, Lagier J-C, Parola P, et al. Hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin as a treatment of COVID-19: results of an open-label non-randomized clinical trial. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2020;56(1):105949. doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105949
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tian X, Li C, Huang A, et al. Potent binding of 2019 novel coronavirus spike protein by a SARS coronavirus-specific human monoclonal antibody. Emerg Microbes Infect. 2020;9(1):382–385. doi:10.1080/22221751.2020.1729069
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan JF-W, Kok K-H, Zhu Z, et al. Genomic characterization of the 2019 novel human-pathogenic coronavirus isolated from a patient with atypical pneumonia after visiting Wuhan. Emerg Microbes Infect. 2020;9(1):221–236. doi:10.1080/22221751.2020.1719902
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li W, Shi Z, Yu M, et al. Bats are natural reservoirs of SARS-like coronaviruses. Science. 2005;310(5748):676–679. doi:10.1126/science.1118391
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang T, Wu Q, Zhang Z. Probable pangolin origin of SARS-CoV-2 associated with the COVID-19 outbreak. Curr Biol. 2020;30(8):1578. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2020.03.063
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoffmann M, Kleine-Weber H, Schroeder S, et al. SARS-CoV-2 cell entry depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and is blocked by a clinically proven protease inhibitor. Cell. 2020;181(2):271–280.e8. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2020.02.052
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uzoigwe CE. Body temperature and host species preferences of SARS-CoV-2. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2020;26(12):1709–1710. doi:10.1016/j.cmi.2020.07.017
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guo Y-R, Cao Q-D, Hong Z-S, et al. The origin, transmission and clinical therapies on coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak–an update on the status. Mil Med Res. 2020;7(1):1–10. doi:10.1186/s40779-020-00240-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Letko M, Marzi A, Munster V. Functional assessment of cell entry and receptor usage for SARS-CoV-2 and other lineage B betacoronaviruses. Nat Microbiol. 2020;5(4):562–569. doi:10.1038/s41564-020-0688-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lauer SA, Grantz KH, Bi Q, et al. The incubation period of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) from publicly reported confirmed cases: estimation and application. Ann Intern Med. 2020;172(9):577–582. doi:10.7326/M20-0504
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pal M, Berhanu G, Desalegn C, Kandi V. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2): an update. Cureus. 2020;12(3). doi:10.7759/cureus.7423
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chams N, Chams S, Badran R, et al. COVID-19: a multidisciplinary review. Front Public Health. 2020;8(383):1–20. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2020.00383
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wrapp D, Wang N, Corbett KS, et al. Cryo-EM structure of the 2019-nCoV spike in the prefusion conformation. Science. 2020;367(6483):1260–1263. doi:10.1126/science.abb2507
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paules CI, Marston HD, Fauci AS. Coronavirus infections—more than just the common cold. JAMA. 2020;323(8):707–708. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.0757
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Del Rio C, Malani PN. 2019 novel coronavirus—important information for clinicians. JAMA. 2020;323(11):1039–1040. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.1490
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumar S, Maurya VK, Prasad AK, et al. Structural, glycosylation and antigenic variation between 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) and SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV). Virusdisease. 2020;31(1):13–21.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chen Y, Liu Q, Guo D. Emerging coronaviruses: genome structure, replication, and pathogenesis. J Med Virol. 2020;92(4):418–423. doi:10.1002/jmv.25681
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu A, Peng Y, Huang B, et al. Genome composition and divergence of the novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) originating in China. Cell Host Microbe. 2020;27:325–328. doi:10.1016/j.chom.2020.02.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu Z, Peng C, Shi Y, et al. Nelfinavir was predicted to be a potential inhibitor of 2019-nCov main protease by an integrative approach combining homology modelling, molecular docking and binding free energy calculation. BioRxiv. 2020. doi:10.1101/2020.05.09.086165
   Google Scholar
• Santonja C, Heras F, Núñez L, Requena L. COVID‐19 chilblain‐like lesion: immunohistochemical demonstration of SARS‐CoV‐2 spike protein in blood vessel endothelium and sweat gland epithelium in a polymerase chain reaction‐negative patient. Br J Dermatol. 2020;183(4):778–780. doi:10.1111/bjd.19338
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hui KP, Cheung M-C, Perera RA, et al. Tropism, replication competence, and innate immune responses of the coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 in human respiratory tract and conjunctiva: an analysis in ex-vivo and in-vitro cultures. Lancet Respir Med. 2020;8(7):687–695. doi:10.1016/S2213-2600(20)30193-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Backer JA, Klinkenberg D, Wallinga J. Incubation period of 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) infections among travellers from Wuhan, China, 20–28 January 2020. Eurosurveillance. 2020;25(5):2000062. doi:10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2020.25.5.2000062
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Varia M, Wilson S, Sarwal S, et al. Investigation of a nosocomial outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in Toronto, Canada. CMAJ. 2003;169(4):285–292.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Virlogeux V, Fang VJ, Park M, et al. Comparison of incubation period distribution of human infections with MERS-CoV in South Korea and Saudi Arabia. Sci Rep. 2016;6(1):1–7. doi:10.1038/srep35839
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang W, Tang J, Wei F. Updated understanding of the outbreak of 2019 novel coronavirus (2019‐nCoV) in Wuhan, China. J Med Virol. 2020;92(4):441–447. doi:10.1002/jmv.25689
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang J, Cao Y, Tan G, et al. Clinical, radiological, and laboratory characteristics and risk factors for severity and mortality of 289 hospitalized COVID‐19 patients. Allergy. 2021;76(2):533–550. doi:10.1111/all.14496
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tian S, Hu N, Lou J, et al. Characteristics of COVID-19 infection in Beijing. J Infect. 2020;80(4):401–406. doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2020.02.018
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang D, Hu B, Hu C, et al. Clinical characteristics of 138 hospitalized patients with 2019 novel coronavirus–infected pneumonia in Wuhan, China. JAMA. 2020;323(11):1061–1069. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.1585
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alimohamadi Y, Sepandi M, Taghdir M, Hosamirudsari H. Determine the most common clinical symptoms in COVID-19 patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Prev Med Hyg. 2020;61(3):E304. doi:10.15167/2421-4248/jpmh2020.61.3.1530
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Grasselli G, Greco M, Zanella A, et al. Risk factors associated with mortality among patients with COVID-19 in intensive care units in Lombardy, Italy. JAMA Intern Med. 2020;180(10):1345. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2020.3539
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wollina U, Karadağ AS, Rowland‐Payne C, et al. Cutaneous signs in COVID‐19 patients: a review. Dermatol Ther. 2020;33(5):e13549. doi:10.1111/dth.13549
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bernheim A, Mei X, Huang M, et al. Chest CT findings in coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19): relationship to duration of infection. Radiology. 2020;295(3):200463. doi:10.1148/radiol.2020200463
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wong HYF, Lam HYS, Fong AH-T, et al. Frequency and distribution of chest radiographic findings in patients positive for COVID-19. Radiology. 2020;296(2):E72–E8. doi:10.1148/radiol.2020201160
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fang Y, Zhang H, Xie J, et al. Sensitivity of chest CT for COVID-19: comparison to RT-PCR. Radiology. 2020;296(2):E115–E7. doi:10.1148/radiol.2020200432
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang R, Tie X, Qi Z, et al. Diagnosis of covid-19 pneumonia using chest radiography: value of artificial intelligence. Radiology. 2021;298:E88–E97.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lomoro P, Verde F, Zerboni F, et al. COVID-19 pneumonia manifestations at the admission on chest ultrasound, radiographs, and CT: single-center study and comprehensive radiologic literature review. Eur J Radiol Open. 2020:100231. doi:10.1016/j.ejro.2020.100231
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xie X, Zhong Z, Zhao W, et al. Chest CT for typical 2019-nCoV pneumonia: relationship to negative RT-PCR testing. Radiology. 2020;296:E41–E45.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cao Q, Chen Y-C, Chen C-L, Chiu C-H. SARS-CoV-2 infection in children: transmission dynamics and clinical characteristics. J Formos Med Assoc. 2020;119(3):670. doi:10.1016/j.jfma.2020.02.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Su L, Ma X, Yu H, et al. The different clinical characteristics of corona virus disease cases between children and their families in China–the character of children with COVID-19. Emerg Microbes Infect. 2020;9(1):707–713. doi:10.1080/22221751.2020.1744483
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gruber CN, Patel RS, Trachtman R, et al. Mapping systemic inflammation and antibody responses in multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C). Cell. 2020;183(4):982–95. e14. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2020.09.034
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salih AF, Hamasalih K, Rahman HS, Mohammed GA. Pediatric COVID-19 infection in Sulaymaniyah Governorate, Iraq. Am J Otolaryngol. 2022;43(1):103199. doi:10.1016/j.amjoto.2021.103199
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hariyanto TI, Lugito NPH, Yanto TA, et al. Insulin therapy and outcome from coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): a systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-regression. Endocr Metab Immune Disord Drug Targets. 2021;21. doi:10.2174/1871530321666210709164925
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shi Y, Yu X, Zhao H, et al. Host susceptibility to severe COVID-19 and establishment of a host risk score: findings of 487 cases outside Wuhan. Crit Care. 2020;24(1):1–4. doi:10.1186/s13054-020-2833-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kopel J, Perisetti A, Roghani A, et al. Racial and gender-based differences in COVID-19. Front Public Health. 2020;8:418. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2020.00418
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jin J-M, Bai P, He W, et al. Gender differences in patients with COVID-19: focus on severity and mortality. Front Public Health. 2020;8:152. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2020.00152
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guan W-J, Liang W-H, Zhao Y, et al. Comorbidity and its impact on 1590 patients with Covid-19 in China: a Nationwide Analysis. Eur Respir J. 2020;55(5):2000547. doi:10.1183/13993003.00547-2020
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richardson S, Hirsch JS, Narasimhan M, et al. Presenting characteristics, comorbidities, and outcomes among 5700 patients hospitalized with COVID-19 in the New York City area. JAMA. 2020;323(20):2052. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.6775
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hariyanto TI, Putri C, Hananto JE, et al. Delirium is a good predictor for poor outcomes from coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pneumonia: a systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-regression. J Psychiatr Res. 2021;142:361–368. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2021.08.031
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hariyanto TI, Putri C, Arisa J, et al. Dementia and outcomes from coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Arch Gerontol Geriatr. 2020;93:104299. doi:10.1016/j.archger.2020.104299
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Putri C, Hariyanto TI, Hananto JE, et al. Parkinson’s disease may worsen outcomes from coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pneumonia in hospitalized patients: a systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-regression. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2021;87:155–161. doi:10.1016/j.parkreldis.2021.04.019
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hariyanto TI, Kurniawan A. Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) and outcomes from coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sleep Med. 2021;82(4):47–53. doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2021.03.029
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hariyanto TI, Kurniawan A. Dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP4) inhibitor and outcome from coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in diabetic patients: a systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-regression. J Diabetes Metab Disord. 2021;20:543–550.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hariyanto TI, Intan D, Hananto JE, et al. Pre-admission glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist (GLP-1RA) and mortality from coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid-19): a systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-regression. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2021;179:109031. doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2021.109031
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hariyanto TI, Japar KV, Damay V, et al. The use of ACE inhibitor/ARB in SARS-CoV-2 patients: a comprehensive narrative review. Asian J Med Sci. 2020;11(6):113–120. doi:10.3126/ajms.v11i6.29911
   Google Scholar
• Zhao J, Yang Y, Huang H, et al. Relationship between the ABO Blood Group and the COVID-19 Susceptibility. medRxiv. 2020 [Preprint]. doi:10.1101/2020.03.11.20031096
   Google Scholar
• Latz CA, DeCarlo C, Boitano L, et al. Blood type and outcomes in patients with COVID-19. Ann Hematol. 2020;99(9):2113–2118. doi:10.1007/s00277-020-04169-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franchini M, Cruciani M, Mengoli C, et al. ABO blood group and COVID-19: an updated systematic literature review and meta-analysis. Blood Transfus. 2021;19(4):317–326. doi:10.2450/2021.0049-21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Behboudi E, Hamidi V, Gholizadeh F, et al. Association between ABO blood groups and rhesus antigen and susceptibility to COVID-19 in the Yazd hospital. New Microbes New Infect. 2021;44:100934. doi:10.1016/j.nmni.2021.100934
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levi JE, Telles PR, Scrivani H, et al. Lack of association between ABO blood groups and susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 infection. Hematol Transfus Cell Ther. 2020;42:541. doi:10.1016/j.htct.2020.10.914
   Google Scholar
• Hariyanto TI, Kurniawan A. Anemia is associated with severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) infection. Transfus Apher Sci. 2020;59(6):1–2. doi:10.1016/j.transci.2020.102926
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Novelli EM, Huynh C, Gladwin MT, et al. Pulmonary embolism in sickle cell disease: a case–control study. J Thromb Haemost. 2012;10(5):760–766. doi:10.1111/j.1538-7836.2012.04697.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sonakul D, Fucharoen S. Pulmonary thromboembolism in thalassemic patients. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 1992;23:25–28.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Grillet F, Behr J, Calame P, et al. Acute pulmonary embolism associated with COVID-19 pneumonia detected by pulmonary CT angiography. Radiology. 2020;296:E186–E188.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin W, Wen J, Chen G. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV: a system review. medRxiv. 2020. doi:10.1101/2020.07.12.20151068
   Google Scholar
• Liu W, Wang Q, Zhang Q, et al. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) during pregnancy: a case series; 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Patel R, Babady E, Theel ES, et al. Report from the American Society for Microbiology COVID-19 international summit, 23 march 2020: value of diagnostic testing for SARS–CoV-2/COVID-19. Am Soc Microbiol. 2020. doi:10.1128/mBio.00722-20
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. WHO Director-General’s opening remarks at the media briefing on COVID-19-11 March 2020. Geneva, Switzerland; 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Carsana L, Sonzogni A, Nasr A, et al. Pulmonary post-mortem findings in a series of COVID-19 cases from northern Italy: a two-centre descriptive study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2020;20(10):1135–1140. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30434-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garfin DR, Silver RC, Holman EA. The novel coronavirus (COVID-2019) outbreak: amplification of public health consequences by media exposure. Health Psychol. 2020;39(5):355–357. doi:10.1037/hea0000875
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McIntosh K, Hirsch M, Bloom A. COVID-19: epidemiology, virology, and prevention. UpToDate; 2021. Available from: https://www.uptodate.com/contents/covid-19-epidemiology-virology-and-prevention. Accessed March 18, 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Singh SP, Pritam M, Pandey B, Yadav TP. Microstructure, pathophysiology, and potential therapeutics of COVID‐19: a comprehensive review. J Med Virol. 2021;93(1):275–299. doi:10.1002/jmv.26254
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gupta A, Madhavan MV, Sehgal K, et al. Extrapulmonary manifestations of COVID-19. Nat Med. 2020;26(7):1017–1032. doi:10.1038/s41591-020-0968-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yuki K, Fujiogi M, Koutsogiannaki S. COVID-19 pathophysiology: a review. Clin Immunol. 2020;215:108427. doi:10.1016/j.clim.2020.108427
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet. 2020;395(10223):497–506. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tang X, Wu C, Li X, et al. On the origin and continuing evolution of SARS-CoV-2. Natl Sci Rev. 2020;7(6):1012–1023. doi:10.1093/nsr/nwaa036
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lau SK, Li KS, Huang Y, et al. Ecoepidemiology and complete genome comparison of different strains of severe acute respiratory syndrome-related Rhinolophus bat coronavirus in China reveal bats as a reservoir for acute, self-limiting infection that allows recombination events. J Virol. 2010;84(6):2808–2819. doi:10.1128/JVI.02219-09
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang W, Xu Y, Gao R, et al. Detection of SARS-CoV-2 in different types of clinical specimens. JAMA. 2020;323(18):1843–1844. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.3786
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wong MC, Cregeen SJJ, Ajami NJ, Petrosino JF. Evidence of recombination in coronaviruses implicating pangolin origins of nCoV-2019. Biorxiv. 2020. doi:10.1101/2020.02.07.939207
   Google Scholar
• Xiao K, Zhai J, Feng Y, et al. Isolation and characterization of 2019-nCoV-like coronavirus from Malayan pangolins. BioRxiv. 2020. doi:10.1101/2020.02.17.951335
   Google Scholar
• Lam TTY, Jia N, Zhang YW, et al. Identifying SARS-CoV-2-related coronaviruses in Malayan pangolins. Nature. 2020;583(7815):282–285. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2169-0
   Google Scholar
• Jin X, Lian J-S, Hu J-H, et al. Epidemiological, clinical and virological characteristics of 74 cases of coronavirus-infected disease 2019 (COVID-19) with gastrointestinal symptoms. Gut. 2020;69(6):1002–1009. doi:10.1136/gutjnl-2020-320926
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jalava K. First respiratory transmitted food borne outbreak? Int J Hyg Environ Health. 2020;226:113490. doi:10.1016/j.ijheh.2020.113490
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• She J, Jiang J, Ye L, et al. 2019 novel coronavirus of pneumonia in Wuhan, China: emerging attack and management strategies. Clin Transl Med. 2020;9(1):1–7. doi:10.1186/s40169-020-00271-z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boldog P, Tekeli T, Vizi Z, et al. Risk assessment of novel coronavirus COVID-19 outbreaks outside China. J Clin Med. 2020;9(2):571. doi:10.3390/jcm9020571
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rothe C, Schunk M, Sothmann P, et al. Transmission of 2019-nCoV infection from an asymptomatic contact in Germany. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(10):970–971. doi:10.1056/NEJMc2001468
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhou C. Evaluating new evidence in the early dynamics of the novel coronavirus COVID-19 outbreak in Wuhan, China with real time domestic traffic and potential asymptomatic transmissions. medRxiv. 2020. doi:10.1101/2020.02.15.20023440
   Google Scholar
• Hu Z, Song C, Xu C, et al. Clinical characteristics of 24 asymptomatic infections with COVID-19 screened among close contacts in Nanjing, China. Sci China Life Sci. 2020:1–6. doi:10.2139/ssrn.3543598
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu Q, Shi Y. Coronavirus disease (COVID‐19) and neonate: what neonatologist need to know. J Med Virol. 2020;92(6):564–567. doi:10.1002/jmv.25740
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Belser JA, Rota PA, Tumpey TM. Ocular tropism of respiratory viruses. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev. 2013;77(1):144–156. doi:10.1128/MMBR.00058-12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koenig KL, Bey CK, McDonald EC. 2019-nCoV: the identify-isolate-inform (3I) tool applied to a novel emerging coronavirus. West J Emerg Med. 2020;21(2):184. doi:10.5811/westjem.2020.1.46760
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Urrutia-Pereira M, Mello-da-silva CA, Solé D. Household pollution and COVID-19: irrelevant association? Allergol Immunopathol. 2021;49(1):146–149. doi:10.15586/aei.v49i1.48
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wong J, Goh QY, Tan Z, et al. Preparing for a COVID-19 pandemic: a review of operating room outbreak response measures in a large tertiary hospital in Singapore. Can J Anesth. 2020;67(6):732–745.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peng X, Xu X, Li Y, et al. Transmission routes of 2019-nCoV and controls in dental practice. Int J Oral Sci. 2020;12(1):1–6. doi:10.1038/s41368-020-0075-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouadma L, Lescure F-X, Lucet J-C, et al. Severe SARS-CoV-2 infections: practical considerations and management strategy for intensivists. Intensive Care Med. 2020;46(4):579–582.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yeo C, Kaushal S, Yeo D. Enteric involvement of coronaviruses: is faecal–oral transmission of SARS-CoV-2 possible? Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2020;5(4):335–337. doi:10.1016/S2468-1253(20)30048-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Doremalen N, Bushmaker T, Morris DH, et al. Aerosol and surface stability of SARS-CoV-2 as compared with SARS-CoV-1. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(16):1564–1567. doi:10.1056/NEJMc2004973
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ozdemir C, Kucuksezer UC, Tamay ZU. Is BCG vaccination affecting the spread and severity of COVID‐19? Allergy. 2020;75(7):1824–1827. doi:10.1111/all.14344
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang L, Yan Y, Wang L. Coronavirus disease 2019: coronaviruses and blood safety. Transfus Med Rev. 2020;34(2):75–80. doi:10.1016/j.tmrv.2020.02.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dodd RY, Stramer SL. COVID-19 and blood safety: help with a dilemma. Transfus Med Rev. 2020;34(2):73–74. doi:10.1016/j.tmrv.2020.02.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xia J, Tong J, Liu M, et al. Evaluation of coronavirus in tears and conjunctival secretions of patients with SARS‐CoV‐2 infection. J Med Virol. 2020;92(6):589–594. doi:10.1002/jmv.25725
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tang A, Tong Z, Wang H, et al. Detection of novel coronavirus by RT-PCR in stool specimen from asymptomatic child, China. Emerg Infect Dis. 2020;26(6):1337–1339. doi:10.3201/eid2606.200301
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dong X, Cao Y, Lu X, et al. Eleven faces of coronavirus disease 2019. Allergy. 2020;75(7):1699–1709.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xing Y, Ni W, Wu Q, et al. Prolonged presence of SARS-CoV-2 in feces of pediatric patients during the convalescent phase. medRxiv. 2020. doi:10.1101/2020.03.11.20033159
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Levy A, Yagil Y, Bursztyn M, et al. ACE2 expression and activity are enhanced during pregnancy. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2008;295(6):R1953–R61. doi:10.1152/ajpregu.90592.2008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li M, Chen L, Xiong C, Li X. The ACE2 expression of maternal-fetal interface and fetal organs indicates potential risk of vertical transmission of SARS-COV-2. bioRxiv. 2020. doi:10.1101/2020.02.27.967760
   Google Scholar
• Su H, Yang M, Wan C, et al. Renal histopathological analysis of 26 postmortem findings of patients with COVID-19 in China. Kidney Int. 2020;98(1):219–227. doi:10.1016/j.kint.2020.04.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang H, Zhou P, Wei Y, et al. Histopathologic changes and SARS-CoV-2 immunostaining in the lung of a patient with COVID-19. Ann Intern Med. 2020;172(9):629–632. doi:10.7326/M20-0533
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grillo F, Barisione E, Ball L, et al. Lung fibrosis: an undervalued finding in COVID-19 pathological series. Lancet Infect Dis. 2021;21(4). doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30582-X
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tian S, Hu W, Niu L, et al. Pulmonary pathology of early phase 2019 novel coronavirus (COVID-19) pneumonia in two patients with lung cancer. J Thorac Oncol. 2020;15(5):700–704. doi:10.1016/j.jtho.2020.02.010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang C, Xie J, Zhao L, et al. Alveolar macrophage dysfunction and cytokine storm in the pathogenesis of two severe COVID-19 patients. EBioMedicine. 2020;57:102833. doi:10.1016/j.ebiom.2020.102833
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wichmann D, Sperhake J-P, Lütgehetmann M, et al. Autopsy findings and venous thromboembolism in patients with COVID-19: a prospective cohort study. Ann Intern Med. 2020;173(4):268–277.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao CL, Rapkiewicz A, Maghsoodi-Deerwester M, et al. Pathological findings in the postmortem liver of COVID-19 patients. Hum Pathol. 2021;109:59–68. doi:10.1016/j.humpath.2020.11.015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jaunmuktane Z, Mahadeva U, Green A, et al. Microvascular injury and hypoxic damage: emerging neuropathological signatures in COVID-19. Acta Neuropathol. 2020;140(3):397–400. doi:10.1007/s00401-020-02190-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reichard RR, Kashani KB, Boire NA, et al. Neuropathology of COVID-19: a spectrum of vascular and acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM)-like pathology. Acta Neuropathol. 2020;140(1):1–6. doi:10.1007/s00401-020-02166-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bradley BT, Maioli H, Johnston R, et al. Histopathology and ultrastructural findings of fatal COVID-19 infections in Washington State: a case series. Lancet. 2020;396(10247):320-332. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31305-2
   Google Scholar
• Menter T, Haslbauer JD, Nienhold R, et al. Postmortem examination of COVID‐19 patients reveals diffuse alveolar damage with severe capillary congestion and variegated findings in lungs and other organs suggesting vascular dysfunction. Histopathology. 2020;77(2):198–209. doi:10.1111/his.14134
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li Y, Li M, Wang M, et al. Acute cerebrovascular disease following COVID-19: a single center, retrospective, observational study. Stroke Vasc Neurol. 2020;5(3):279–284. doi:10.1136/svn-2020-000431
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Winata S, Kurniawan A. Coagulopathy in COVID-19: a systematic review. Medicinus. 2021;8(2):72–80. doi:10.19166/med.v8i2.3444
   Google Scholar
• Ribes A, Vardon-Bounes F, Mémier V, et al. Thromboembolic events and Covid-19. Adv Biol Regul. 2020;77:100735. doi:10.1016/j.jbior.2020.100735
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tang N, Li D, Wang X, Sun Z. Abnormal coagulation parameters are associated with poor prognosis in patients with novel coronavirus pneumonia. J Thromb Haemost. 2020;18(4):844–847. doi:10.1111/jth.14768
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deshpande C. Thromboembolic findings in COVID-19 autopsies: pulmonary thrombosis or embolism? Ann Intern Med. 2020;173(5):394–395. doi:10.7326/M20-3255
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McIntosh K, Hirsch M, Bloom A. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). UpToDate; February, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Control CfD, Prevention. Evaluating and testing persons for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases (NCIRD), Division of Viral Diseases; 2020.
   Google Scholar
• America IDSo. COVID-19 prioritization of diagnostic testing; 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Guan W-J, Ni Z-Y, Hu Y, et al. Clinical characteristics of coronavirus disease 2019 in China. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(18):1708–1720. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2002032
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhu N, Zhang D, Wang W; China Novel Coronavirus Investigating and Research Team. A novel coronavirus from patients with pneumonia in China. N Engl J Med. 2019;382:727–733.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Capobianchi MR, Rueca M, Messina F, et al. Molecular characterization of SARS-CoV-2 from the first case of COVID-19 in Italy. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2020;26(7):954-956. doi:10.1016/j.cmi.2020.03.025.
   Google Scholar
• Shu Y, McCauley J. GISAID: global initiative on sharing all influenza data–from vision to reality. Eurosurveillance. 2017;22(13):30494. doi:10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2017.22.13.30494
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Binnicker MJ. Emergence of a novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) and the importance of diagnostic testing: why partnership between clinical laboratories, public health agencies, and industry is essential to control the outbreak. Clin Chem. 2020;66(5):664–666. doi:10.1093/clinchem/hvaa071
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Interim guidelines for collecting, handling, and testing clinical specimens from persons for coronavirus disease 2019. [database on the Internet]; 2020 [cited April 6, 2020]. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/lab/guidelines-clinical-specimens.html. Accessed November 22, 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Return-to-work criteria for healthcare workers | [database on the Internet]; 2020 [cited April 15, 2020]. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/return-to-work.html?. Accessed November 22, 2021.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. Home care for patients with COVID-19 presenting with mild symptoms and management of their contacts: interim guidance; 2020. Available from: who.int/publications/i/item/home-care-for-patients-with-suspected-novel-coronavirus-(ncov)-infection-presenting-with-mild-symptoms-and-management-of-contacts. Accessed November 30, 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Woelfel R, Corman VM, Guggemos W, et al. Clinical presentation and virological assessment of hospitalized cases of coronavirus disease 2019 in a travel-associated transmission cluster. MedRxiv. 2020. doi:10.1101/2020.03.05.20030502
   Google Scholar
• Carver C, Jones N Comparative accuracy of oropharyngeal and nasopharyngeal swabs for diagnosis of COVID-19. Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine, Nuffield Department of Primary Care Health Sciences, University of Oxford; 2020.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. Laboratory testing for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in suspected human cases: interim guidance, 2 March 2020. World Health Organization; 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Holshue ML, DeBolt C, Lindquist S, et al. First case of 2019 novel coronavirus in the United States. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(10):929–936. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2001191
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang W, Du R-H, Li B, et al. Molecular and serological investigation of 2019-nCoV infected patients: implication of multiple shedding routes. Emerg Microbes Infect. 2020;9(1):386–389. doi:10.1080/22221751.2020.1729071
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Linton NM, Kobayashi T, Yang Y, et al. Incubation period and other epidemiological characteristics of 2019 novel coronavirus infections with right truncation: a statistical analysis of publicly available case data. J Clin Med. 2020;9(2):538. doi:10.3390/jcm9020538
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guglielmi G. First CRISPR test for the coronavirus approved in the United States. Nature (Lond). 2020. doi:10.1038/d41586-020-01402-9
   Google Scholar
• Pascarella G, Strumia A, Piliego C, et al. COVID‐19 diagnosis and management: a comprehensive review. J Intern Med. 2020;288(2):192–206. doi:10.1111/joim.13091
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Broughton JP, Deng X, Yu G, et al. Rapid detection of 2019 novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 using a CRISPR-based DETECTR lateral flow assay. MedRxiv. 2020. doi:10.1101/2020.03.06.20032334
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yang X, Yu Y, Xu J, et al. Clinical course and outcomes of critically ill patients with SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a single-centered, retrospective, observational study. Lancet Respir Med. 2020;8(5):475–481. doi:10.1016/S2213-2600(20)30079-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ai T, Yang Z, Hou H, et al. Correlation of chest CT and RT-PCR testing in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in China: a report of 1014 cases. Radiology. 2020;296:E32–E40. doi:10.1148/radiol.2020200642
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simpson S, Kay FU, Abbara S, et al. Radiological society of north America expert consensus document on reporting chest CT findings related to COVID-19: endorsed by the society of thoracic Radiology, the American college of Radiology, and RSNA. Radiol Cardiothorac Imaging. 2020;2(2):e200152. doi:10.1148/ryct.2020200152
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Song F, Shi N, Shan F, et al. Emerging 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) pneumonia. Radiology. 2020;295(1):210–217. doi:10.1148/radiol.2020200274
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bai HX, Hsieh B, Xiong Z, et al. Performance of radiologists in differentiating COVID-19 from viral pneumonia on chest CT. Radiology. 2020;296:E46–54.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zheng C, Ye T, Sun P. Time course of lung changes at chest CT during recovery from coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Radiology. 2020;295:715–721. doi:10.1148/radiol.2020200370
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shi H, Han X, Jiang N, et al. Radiological findings from 81 patients with COVID-19 pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a descriptive study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2020;20(4):425–434. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30086-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao W, Zhong Z, Xie X, et al. Relation between chest CT findings and clinical conditions of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pneumonia: a multicenter study. Am J Roentgenol. 2020;214(5):1072–1077. doi:10.2214/AJR.20.22976
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang P, Liu T, Huang L, et al. Use of chest CT in combination with negative RT-PCR assay for the 2019 novel coronavirus but high clinical suspicion. Radiology. 2020;295(1):22–23. doi:10.1148/radiol.2020200330
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brogna B, Bignardi E, Brogna C, et al. Typical CT findings of COVID-19 pneumonia in patients presenting with repetitive negative RT-PCR. Radiography. 2021;27(2):743–747. doi:10.1016/j.radi.2020.09.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gervaise A, Bouzad C, Peroux E, Helissey C. Acute pulmonary embolism in non-hospitalized COVID-19 patients referred to CTPA by emergency department. Eur Radiol. 2020;30:6170–6177. doi:10.1007/s00330-020-06977-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Minuz P, Mansueto G, Mazzaferri F, et al. High rate of pulmonary thromboembolism in patients with SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2020;26(11):1572–1573. doi:10.1016/j.cmi.2020.06.011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xing C, Li Q, Du H, et al. Lung ultrasound findings in patients with COVID-19 pneumonia. Crit Care. 2020;24(1):1–3. doi:10.1186/s13054-020-02876-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buonsenso D, Piano A, Raffaelli F, et al. novel coronavirus disease-19 pnemoniae: a case report and potential applications during COVID-19 outbreak. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 2020;24:2776–2780. doi:10.26355/eurrev_202003_20549
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soldati G, Smargiassi A, Inchingolo R, et al. Proposal for international standardization of the use of lung ultrasound for patients with COVID‐19: a simple, quantitative, reproducible method. J Ultrasound Med. 2020;39(7):1413–1419. doi:10.1002/jum.15285
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pourbagheri-Sigaroodi A, Bashash D, Fateh F, Abolghasemi H. Laboratory findings in COVID-19 diagnosis and prognosis. Clin Chim Acta. 2020;510:475–482. doi:10.1016/j.cca.2020.08.019
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hassan SA, Sheikh FN, Jamal S, et al. Coronavirus (COVID-19): a review of clinical features, diagnosis, and treatment. Cureus. 2020;12(3):e–7355.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li Z, Yi Y, Luo X, et al. Development and clinical application of a rapid IgM‐IgG combined antibody test for SARS‐CoV‐2 infection diagnosis. J Med Virol. 2020;92(9):1518–1524.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Long Q-X, Liu B-Z, Deng H-J, et al. Antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 in patients with COVID-19. Nat Med. 2020;26(6):845–848. doi:10.1038/s41591-020-0897-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer B, Drosten C, Müller MA. Serological assays for emerging coronaviruses: challenges and pitfalls. Virus Res. 2014;194:175–183. doi:10.1016/j.virusres.2014.03.018
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FDA U. Coronavirus (COVID-19) update: FDA authorizes first antigen test to help in the rapid detection of the virus that causes COVID-19 in patients; 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Mathuria JP, Yadav R. Laboratory diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2-a review of current methods. J Infect Public Health. 2020;13(7):901–905. doi:10.1016/j.jiph.2020.06.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lansbury L, Lim B, Baskaran V, Lim WS. Co-infections in people with COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Infect. 2020;81(2):266–275. doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2020.05.046
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Contou D, Claudinon A, Pajot O, et al. Bacterial and viral co-infections in patients with severe SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia admitted to a French ICU. Ann Intensive Care. 2020;10(1):1–9. doi:10.1186/s13613-020-00736-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baunoch D, Wolfe A, Wang D, et al. Co-occurrence of SARS-CoV-2 and respiratory pathogens in the Frail elderly. medRxiv. 2020. doi:10.1101/2020.06.24.20138941
   Google Scholar
• Bordi L, Nicastri E, Scorzolini L, et al. Differential diagnosis of illness in patients under investigation for the novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2), Italy, February 2020. Eurosurveillance. 2020;25(8):2000170. doi:10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2020.25.8.2000170
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boers SA, Melchers WJ, Peters CJ, et al. Multicenter evaluation of QIAstat-Dx respiratory panel V2 for detection of viral and bacterial respiratory pathogens. J Clin Microbiol. 2020;58(6). doi:10.1128/JCM.01793-19
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walker M. Flu, COVID-19 or Both? Don’t Overlook Co-Infection. Urges C, editor. Medpage Today; 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Garcia-Vidal C, Sanjuan G, Moreno-García E, et al. Incidence of co-infections and superinfections in hospitalized patients with COVID-19: a retrospective cohort study. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2021;27(1):83–88. doi:10.1016/j.cmi.2020.07.041
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lai -C-C, Wang C-Y, Hsueh P-R. Co-infections among patients with COVID-19: the need for combination therapy with non-anti-SARS-CoV-2 agents? J Microbiol Immunol Infect. 2020;53(4):505–512. doi:10.1016/j.jmii.2020.05.013
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sharifipour E, Shams S, Esmkhani M, et al. Evaluation of bacterial co-infections of the respiratory tract in COVID-19 patients admitted to ICU. BMC Infect Dis. 2020;20(1):1–7. doi:10.1186/s12879-020-05374-z
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen N, Zhou M, Dong X, et al. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a descriptive study. Lancet. 2020;395(10223):507–513. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30211-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nickel CH, Bingisser R. Mimics and chameleons of COVID-19. Swiss Med Wkly. 2020;150(1314):1–2.
   Google Scholar
• Hu L, Chen S, Fu Y, et al. Risk factors associated with clinical outcomes in 323 coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) hospitalized patients in Wuhan, China. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71(16):2089-2098. doi:10.1093/cid/ciaa539.
   Google Scholar
• Yao -T-T, Qian J-D, Zhu W-Y, et al. A systematic review of lopinavir therapy for SARS coronavirus and MERS coronavirus—A possible reference for coronavirus disease-19 treatment option. J Med Virol. 2020;92(6):556–563. doi:10.1002/jmv.25729
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu H. Drug treatment options for the 2019-new coronavirus (2019-nCoV). Biosci Trends. 2020;14(1):69–71. doi:10.5582/bst.2020.01020
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cao B, Wang Y, Wen D. A trial of lopinavir-ritonavir in adults hospitalized with severe Covid-19. N Engl J Med. 2020;382:1708–1720. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2001282
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• There is currently no strong evidence of lopinavir/ritonavir in the treatment of COVID-10. [database on the Internet]. The Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine; 2020. Available from: https://www.cebm.net/covid-19/lopinavir-ritonavir-a-rapid-review-of-the-evidence-for-effectiveness-in-treating-covid/. Accessed November 22, 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Yan D, Liu X-Y, Zhu Y-N, et al. Factors associated with prolonged viral shedding and impact of Lopinavir/Ritonavir treatment in patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection. medRxiv. 2020. doi:10.1101/2020.03.22.20040832
   Google Scholar
• Hariyanto TI, Kristine E, Hardi J, Kurniawan A. Efficacy of Lopinavir/Ritonavir compared with standard care for treatment of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): a systematic review. Infect Disord Drug Targets. 2021;21(5):e270421187364. doi:10.2174/1871526520666201029125725
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shen K, Yang Y, Wang T, et al. Diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of 2019 novel coronavirus infection in children: experts’ consensus statement. World J Pediatr. 2020:1–9. doi:10.1007/s12519-020-00340-w
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pereda R, González D, Rivero HB, et al. Therapeutic effectiveness of interferon-α2b against COVID-19: the Cuban experience. J Interferon Cytokine Res. 2020;40(9):438–442. doi:10.1089/jir.2020.0124
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang B, Li D, Liu T, et al. Subcutaneous injection of IFN alpha-2b for COVID-19: an observational study. BMC Infect Dis. 2020;20(1):1–6. doi:10.1186/s12879-020-05425-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Madsen LW. Remdesivir for the treatment of covid-19-final report. N Engl J Med. 2020;338(19):1813–1826.
   Google Scholar
• Wang M, Cao R, Zhang L, et al. Remdesivir and chloroquine effectively inhibit the recently emerged novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in vitro. Cell Res. 2020;30(3):269–271. doi:10.1038/s41422-020-0282-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Negahdaripour M. The rise and fall in therapeutic candidates for COVID-19. Iran J Med Sci. 2020;45(4):231–232. doi:10.30476/ijms.2020.46689
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. WHO recommends against the use of remdesivir in COVID-19 patients; 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Hariyanto TI, Kwenandar F, Japar KV, et al. The Effectiveness and safety of remdesivir for the treatment of patients with COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Anti Infect Agents. 2021;19(3):333–340. doi:10.2174/2211352518999201009124433
   Google Scholar
• Martinez MA. Compounds with therapeutic potential against novel respiratory 2019 coronavirus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2020;64(5). doi:10.1128/AAC.00399-20
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhou F, Yu T, Du R, et al. Clinical course and risk factors for mortality of adult inpatients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet. 2020;395(10229):1054–1062. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30566-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hernandez AV, Roman YM, Pasupuleti V, Barboza JJ, White CM. Hydroxychloroquine or chloroquine for treatment or prophylaxis of COVID-19: a living systematic review. Ann Intern Med. 2020;173(4):287-296. doi:10.7326/M20-2496
   Google Scholar
• Zhan X, Dowell S, Shen Y, Lee DL. Chloroquine to fight COVID-19: a consideration of mechanisms and adverse effects? Heliyon. 2020;6(9):e04900. doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04900
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boriskin Y, Leneva I, Pecheur E-I, Polyak S. Arbidol: a broad-spectrum antiviral compound that blocks viral fusion. Curr Med Chem. 2008;15(10):997–1005. doi:10.2174/092986708784049658
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhu Z, Lu Z, Xu T, et al. Arbidol monotherapy is superior to lopinavir/ritonavir in treating COVID-19. J Infect. 2020;81(1):e21–e3. doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2020.03.060
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Furuta Y, Komeno T, Nakamura T. Favipiravir (T-705), a broad spectrum inhibitor of viral RNA polymerase. Proc Jpn Acad Series B. 2017;93(7):449–463. doi:10.2183/pjab.93.027
   Google Scholar
• Agrawal U, Raju R, Udwadia ZF. Favipiravir: a new and emerging antiviral option in COVID-19. Med J Armed Forces India. 2020;76(4):370–376. doi:10.1016/j.mjafi.2020.08.004
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wang Y, Jiang W, He Q, et al. Early, low-dose and short-term application of corticosteroid treatment in patients with severe COVID-19 pneumonia: single-center experience from Wuhan, China. medRxiv. 2020. doi:10.1101/2020.03.06.20032342
   Google Scholar
• Headquarters NNIo. COVID-19 treatment guidelines. Corticosteroids; 2020. Available from: https://www.covid19treatmentguidelines.nih.gov/immune-based-therapy/immunomodulators/corticosteroids/. Accessed November 22, 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Russell CD, Millar JE, Baillie JK. Clinical evidence does not support corticosteroid treatment for 2019-nCoV lung injury. Lancet. 2020;395(10223):473–475. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30317-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nguyen AA, Habiballah SB, Platt CD, et al. Immunoglobulins in the treatment of COVID-19 infection: proceed with caution! Clin Immunol. 2020;216:108459. doi:10.1016/j.clim.2020.108459
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang J, Ma X, Yu F, et al. Teicoplanin potently blocks the cell entry of 2019-nCoV. BioRxiv. 2020. doi:10.1101/2020.02.05.935387
   Google Scholar
• Zhou N, Pan T, Zhang J, et al. Glycopeptide antibiotics potently inhibit cathepsin l in the late endosome/lysosome and block the entry of Ebola virus, middle east respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV). J Biol Chem. 2016;291(17):9218–9232. doi:10.1074/jbc.M116.716100
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baron SA, Devaux C, Colson P, et al. Teicoplanin: an alternative drug for the treatment of coronavirus COVID-19. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2020;55:105944. doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105944
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mondal S, Quintili AL, Karamchandani K, Bose S. Thromboembolic disease in COVID-19 patients: a brief narrative review. J Intensive Care. 2020;8(1):1–10. doi:10.1186/s40560-020-00483-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hippensteel JA, LaRiviere WB, Colbert JF, et al. Heparin as a therapy for COVID-19: current evidence and future possibilities. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2020;319(2):L211–L7. doi:10.1152/ajplung.00199.2020
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Atallah B, Mallah SI, AlMahmeed W. Anticoagulation in COVID-19. Oxford University Press; 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Komiyama M, Hasegawa K. Anticoagulant therapy for patients with coronavirus disease 2019: urgent need for enhanced awareness. Eur Cardiol Rev. 2020;15. doi:10.15420/ecr.2020.24
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Magazine P. Aspirin could protect against severe COVID-19; 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Daily S. Aspirin use significantly reduces risk of death in hospitalized COVID-19 patients; 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Bianconi V, Violi F, Fallarino F, et al. Is acetylsalicylic acid a safe and potentially useful choice for adult patients with COVID-19? Drugs. 2020:1–14. doi:10.1007/s40265-019-01241-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caly L, Druce JD, Catton MG, et al. The FDA-approved drug ivermectin inhibits the replication of SARS-CoV-2 in vitro. Antiviral Res. 2020;178:104787. doi:10.1016/j.antiviral.2020.104787
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conversation T. Ivermectin is still not a miracle cure for COVID-19, despite what you may have read; 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Hariyanto TI, Halim DA, Rosalind J, et al. Ivermectin and outcomes from Covid‐19 pneumonia: a systematic review and meta‐analysis of randomized clinical trial studies. Rev Med Virol. 2021:e2265. doi:10.1002/rmv.2265
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tang Y, Liu J, Zhang D, et al. Cytokine storm in COVID-19: the current evidence and treatment strategies. Front Immunol. 2020;11:1708. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2020.01708
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reyes AZ, Hu KA, Teperman J, et al. Anti-inflammatory therapy for COVID-19 infection: the case for colchicine. Ann Rheum Dis. 2021;80(5):550–557. doi:10.1136/annrheumdis-2020-219174
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robb CT, Goepp M, Rossi AG, Yao C. Non‐steroidal anti‐inflammatory drugs, prostaglandins, and COVID‐19. Br J Pharmacol. 2020;177(21):4899–4920. doi:10.1111/bph.15206
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Day M. Covid-19: Ibuprofen Should Not Be Used for Managing Symptoms, Say Doctors and Scientists. British Medical Journal Publishing Group; 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Schmack B, Weymann A, Lüdike P, et al. The Role of Mechanical Circulatory Support in COVID 19 Patients. Wiley Online Library; 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Barbaro RP, MacLaren G, Boonstra PS, et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation support in COVID-19: an international cohort study of the Extracorporeal Life Support Organization registry. Lancet. 2020;396(10257):1071–1078. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)32008-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Madjid M, Safavi-Naeini P, Solomon SD, Vardeny O. Potential effects of coronaviruses on the cardiovascular system: a review. JAMA Cardiol. 2020;5(7):831–840. doi:10.1001/jamacardio.2020.1286
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ranard LS, Fried JA, Abdalla M, et al. Approach to acute cardiovascular complications in COVID-19 infection. Circ Heart Fail. 2020;13(7):e007220. doi:10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.120.007220
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Temel S, Sungur M. Blood purification treatments in COVID-19. J Crit Intensive Care. 2020;11(Supp.):32.
   Google Scholar
• Yang X-H, Sun R-H, Zhao M-Y, et al. Expert recommendations on blood purification treatment protocol for patients with severe COVID-19. Chronic Dis Transl Med. 2020;6(2):106–114. doi:10.1016/j.cdtm.2020.04.002
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Samaee H, Mohsenzadegan M, Ala S, et al. Tocilizumab for treatment patients with COVID-19: recommended medication for novel disease. Int Immunopharmacol. 2020;89:107018. doi:10.1016/j.intimp.2020.107018
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stone JH, Frigault MJ, Serling-Boyd NJ, et al. Efficacy of tocilizumab in patients hospitalized with Covid-19. N Engl J Med. 2020;383(24):2333–2344. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2028836
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hariyanto TI, Hardyson W, Kurniawan A. Efficacy and safety of tocilizumab for coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid-19) patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Drug Res. 2021;71(05):265–274. doi:10.1055/a-1336-2371
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marano G, Vaglio S, Pupella S, et al. Convalescent plasma: new evidence for an old therapeutic tool? Blood Transfus. 2016;14(2):152. doi:10.2450/2015.0131-15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rojas M, Rodríguez Y, Monsalve DM, et al. Convalescent plasma in Covid-19: possible mechanisms of action. Autoimmun Rev. 2020;19(7):102554. doi:10.1016/j.autrev.2020.102554
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen L, Xiong J, Bao L, Shi Y. Convalescent plasma as a potential therapy for COVID-19. Lancet Infect Dis. 2020;20(4):398–400. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30141-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ray I, Sánchez DF, Robert CA, Robert MP. Convalescent plasma therapy: an effective therapeutic option to treat COVID-19? A narrative review. Int J Clin Transfus Med. 2020;8:7–21. doi:10.2147/IJCTM.S269691
   Google Scholar
• Times TNY. Remdesivir fails to prevent covid-19 deaths in huge trial; 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Callaway E. Russia’s fast-track coronavirus vaccine draws outrage over safety. Nature. 2020;584(7821):334–335. doi:10.1038/d41586-020-02386-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Logunov DY, Dolzhikova IV, Zubkova OV, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of an rAd26 and rAd5 vector-based heterologous prime-boost COVID-19 vaccine in two formulations: two open, non-randomised Phase 1/2 studies from Russia. Lancet. 2020;396(10255):887–897. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31866-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ivanova P, Sagdiev RE. Exclusive: Russia focuses on freeze-dried vaccine doses as transport fix. Moscow: Reuters; 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Chowdhury AI. Role and effects of micronutrients supplementation in immune system and SARS-Cov-2 (COVID-19). Asian J Immunol. 2020;4:47–55.
   Google Scholar
• Jain A, Chaurasia R, Sengar NS, et al. Analysis of vitamin D level among asymptomatic and critically ill COVID-19 patients and its correlation with inflammatory markers. Sci Rep. 2020;10(1):1–8. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-77093-z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hariyanto TI, Intan D, Hananto JE, et al. Vitamin D supplementation and Covid‐19 outcomes: a systematic review, meta‐analysis and meta‐regression. Rev Med Virol. 2021:e2269. doi:10.1002/rmv.2269
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grant WB, Lahore H, McDonnell SL, et al. Evidence that vitamin D supplementation could reduce risk of influenza and COVID-19 infections and deaths. Nutrients. 2020;12(4):988. doi:10.3390/nu12040988
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ilie PC, Stefanescu S, Smith L. The role of vitamin D in the prevention of coronavirus disease 2019 infection and mortality. Aging Clin Exp Res. 2020;1–4. doi:10.1007/s40520-019-01392-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Headquarters) NNIo. COVID-19 treatment guidelines. Vitamin C; 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Hemilä H, Chalker E. Vitamin C as a possible therapy for COVID-19. Infect Chemother. 2020;52:281. doi:10.3947/ic.2020.52.2.222
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Colunga Biancatelli RML, Berrill M, Marik PE. The Antiviral Properties of Vitamin C. Taylor & Francis; 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Hemilä H, Chalker E. Vitamin C may reduce the duration of mechanical ventilation in critically ill patients: a meta-regression analysis. J Intensive Care. 2020;8(1):15. doi:10.1186/s40560-020-0432-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carr AC, Rowe S. The emerging role of vitamin C in the prevention and treatment of COVID-19. Nutrients. 2020;12(11):3286. doi:10.3390/nu12113286
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hiedra R, Lo KB, Elbashabsheh M, et al. The use of IV vitamin C for patients with COVID-19: a case series. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2020;18(12):1259–1261. doi:10.1080/14787210.2020.1794819
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaushik N, Subramani C, Anang S, et al. Zinc salts block hepatitis E virus replication by inhibiting the activity of viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. J Virol. 2017;91(21). doi:10.1128/JVI.00754-17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bourinbaiar AS, Fruhstorfer EC. The effect of histamine type 2 receptor antagonists on human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) replication: identification of a new class of antiviral agents. Life Sci. 1996;59(23):PL365–PL70. doi:10.1016/S0024-3205(96)00553-X
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freedberg DE, Conigliaro J, Wang TC, et al. Famotidine use is associated with improved clinical outcomes in hospitalized COVID-19 patients: a propensity score matched retrospective cohort study. Gastroenterology. 2020;159(3):1129–1131.e3. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2020.05.053
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janowitz T, Gablenz E, Pattinson D, et al. Famotidine use and quantitative symptom tracking for COVID-19 in non-hospitalised patients: a case series. Gut. 2020;69(9):1592–1597. doi:10.1136/gutjnl-2020-321852
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar