1,364
Views
16
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
REVIEW

Anti-NMDA Receptor Autoimmune Encephalitis: Diagnosis and Management Strategies

&
Pages 7-21 | Received 18 Nov 2022, Accepted 20 Dec 2022, Published online: 04 Jan 2023

References

  • Hughes EG, Peng X, Gleichman AJ, et al. Cellular and synaptic mechanisms of anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis. Neurosci J. 2010;30(17):5866–5875. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0167-10.2010
  • Dalmau J, Tüzün E, Wu H, et al. Paraneoplastic anti–N‐methyl‐D‐aspartate receptor encephalitis associated with ovarian teratoma. Ann Neurol. 2007;61(1):25–36. doi:10.1002/ana.21050
  • Dalmau J, Armangué T, Planagumà J, et al. An update on anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis for neurologists and psychiatrists: mechanisms and models. Lancet Neurol. 2019;18(11):1045–1057. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(19)30244-3
  • Dubey D, Pittock SJ, Kelly CR, et al. Autoimmune encephalitis epidemiology and a comparison to infectious encephalitis. Ann Neurol. 2018;83(1):166–177. doi:10.1002/ana.25131
  • Nissen MS, Ørvik MS, Nilsson AC, Ryding M, Lydolph M, Blaabjerg M. NMDA-receptor encephalitis in Denmark from 2009 to 2019: a national cohort study. J Neurol. 2022;269(3):1618–1630. doi:10.1007/s00415-021-10738-9
  • Gable MS, Sheriff H, Dalmau J, Tilley DH, Glaser CA. The frequency of autoimmune N-Methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis surpasses that of individual viral etiologies in young individuals enrolled in the California encephalitis project. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;54(7):899–904. doi:10.1093/cid/cir1038
  • Prüss H, Dalmau J, Harms L, et al. Retrospective analysis of NMDA receptor antibodies in encephalitis of unknown origin. Neurology. 2010;75(19):1735–1739. doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181fc2a06
  • Kunchok A, McKeon A, Zekeridou A, et al. Autoimmune/paraneoplastic encephalitis antibody biomarkers: frequency, age, and sex associations. Mayo Clin Proc. 2022;97(3):547–559. doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2021.07.023
  • Titulaer MJ, McCracken L, Gabilondo I, et al. Treatment and prognostic factors for long-term outcome in patients with anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis: an observational cohort study. Lancet Neurol. 2013;12(2):157–165. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(12)70310-1
  • Xu X, Lu Q, Huang Y, et al. Anti-NMDAR encephalitis: a single-center, longitudinal study in China. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm. 2020;7(1). doi:10.1212/nxi.0000000000000633
  • Gong X, Chen C, Liu X, et al. Long-term functional outcomes and relapse of anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis: a cohort study in Western China. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm. 2021;8(2). doi:10.1212/NXI.0000000000000958
  • Dalmau J, Lancaster E, Martinez-Hernandez E, Rosenfeld MR, Balice-Gordon R. Clinical experience and laboratory investigations in patients with anti-NMDAR encephalitis. Lancet Neurol. 2011;10(1):63–74. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(10)70253-2
  • Ho ACC, Mohammad SS, Pillai SC, et al. High sensitivity and specificity in proposed clinical diagnostic criteria for anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2017;59(12):1256–1260. doi:10.1111/dmcn.13579
  • Zandi MS, Paterson RW, Ellul MA, et al. Clinical relevance of serum antibodies to extracellular N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor epitopes. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2015;86(7):708–713.
  • Dahm L, Ott C, Steiner J, et al. Seroprevalence of autoantibodies against brain antigens in health and disease. Ann Neurol. 2014;76(1):82–94. doi:10.1002/ana.24189
  • Gresa-Arribas N, Titulaer MJ, Torrents A, et al. Antibody titres at diagnosis and during follow-up of anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis: a retrospective study. Lancet Neurol. 2014;13(2):167–177. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(13)70282-5
  • Freund B, Ritzl EK. A review of EEG in anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis. J Neuroimmunol. 2019;332:64–68. doi:10.1016/j.jneuroim.2019.03.010
  • Bien CG, Bien CI, Dogan Onugoren M, et al. Routine diagnostics for neural antibodies, clinical correlates, treatment and functional outcome. J Neurol. 2020;267(7):2101–2114. doi:10.1007/s00415-020-09814-3
  • Guang S, Ma J, Ren X, et al. Immunotherapies for anti-N-M-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis: multicenter retrospective pediatric cohort study in China. Front Pediatr. 2021;9:691599. doi:10.3389/fped.2021.691599
  • Graus F, Titulaer MJ, Balu R, et al. A clinical approach to diagnosis of autoimmune encephalitis. Lancet Neurol. 2016;15(4):391–404. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(15)00401-9
  • O’Sullivan S, Mullins G, Cassidy E, McNamara B. The role of the standard EEG in clinical psychiatry. Hum Psychopharmacol. 2006;21(4):265–271. doi:10.1002/hup.767
  • Manchanda R, Malla A, Harricharan R, Cortese L, Takhar J. EEG abnormalities and outcome in first-episode psychosis. Can J Psychiatry. 2003;48(11):722–726. doi:10.1177/070674370304801103
  • Gillinder L, Warren N, Hartel G, Dionisio S, O’Gorman C. EEG findings in NMDA encephalitis – a systematic review. Seizure. 2019;65:20–24. doi:10.1016/j.seizure.2018.12.015
  • Nosadini M, Eyre M, Molteni E, et al. Use and safety of immunotherapeutic management of N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor antibody encephalitis: a meta-analysis. JAMA Neurol. 2021;78(11):1333–1344. doi:10.1001/jamaneurol.2021.3188
  • Bacchi S, Franke K, Wewegama D, Needham E, Patel S, Menon D. Magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission tomography in anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis: a systematic review. J Clin Neurosci. 2018;52:54–59. doi:10.1016/j.jocn.2018.03.026
  • Jiang H, Ye H, Wang Y, Li Y, Wang Y, Li X. Anti-N-Methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis associated with ovarian teratoma in South China-clinical features, treatment, immunopathology, and surgical outcomes of 21 cases. Dis Markers. 2021;2021:1–7. doi:10.1155/2021/9990382
  • Abboud H, Probasco J, Irani SR, et al. Autoimmune encephalitis: proposed recommendations for symptomatic and long-term management. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2021;92(8):897–907. doi:10.1136/jnnp-2020-325302
  • Abboud H, Probasco JC, Irani S, et al. Autoimmune encephalitis: proposed best practice recommendations for diagnosis and acute management. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2021;92(7):757–768. doi:10.1136/jnnp-2020-325300
  • Nosadini M, Thomas T, Eyre M, et al. International consensus recommendations for the treatment of pediatric NMDAR antibody encephalitis. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm. 2021;8(5):e1052. doi:10.1212/NXI.0000000000001052
  • Galeotti C, Kaveri SV, Bayry J IVIG-mediated effector functions in autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. Int Immunol. 2017;29(11):491–498. doi:10.1093/intimm/dxx039
  • Lee W-J, Lee S-T, Shin Y-W, et al. Teratoma removal, steroid, IVIG, rituximab and tocilizumab (T-SIRT) in anti-NMDAR encephalitis. Neurotherapeutics. 2021;18(1):474–487. doi:10.1007/s13311-020-00921-7
  • Cai M-T, Zheng Y, Wang S, et al. Clinical relevance of cerebrospinal fluid antibody titers in anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor encephalitis. Brain Sci. 2021;12(1):4. doi:10.3390/brainsci12010004
  • Gong X, Luo R, Liu J, et al. Efficacy and tolerability of intravenous immunoglobulin versus intravenous methylprednisolone treatment in anti‐N‐methyl‐d‐aspartate receptor encephalitis. Eur J Neurol. 2022;29(4):1117–1127. doi:10.1111/ene.15214
  • de Vries JM, Titulaer MJ. Treatment approaches in autoimmune neurology: focus on autoimmune encephalitis with neuronal cell surface antibodies. In: Piquet AL, Alvarez E, editors. Neuroimmunology: Multiple Sclerosis, Autoimmune Neurology and Related Diseases. Springer International Publishing; 2021:261–278.
  • Morales-Ruiz V, Juárez-Vaquera VH, Rosetti-Sciutto M, Sánchez-Muñoz F, Adalid-Peralta L. Efficacy of intravenous immunoglobulin in autoimmune neurological diseases. Literature systematic review and meta-analysis. Autoimmun Rev. 2022;21(3):103019. doi:10.1016/j.autrev.2021.103019
  • Dubey D, Britton J, McKeon A, et al. Randomized placebo‐controlled trial of intravenous immunoglobulin in autoimmune LGI1/CASPR2 epilepsy. Ann Neurol. 2020;87(2):313–323. doi:10.1002/ana.25655
  • Pham HP, Daniel-Johnson JA, Stotler BA, Stephens H, Schwartz J. Therapeutic plasma exchange for the treatment of anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis. J Clin Apher. 2011;26(6):320–325. doi:10.1002/jca.20311
  • Suppiej A, Nosadini M, Zuliani L, et al. Plasma exchange in pediatric anti-NMDAR encephalitis: a systematic review. Brain Dev. 2016;38(7):613–622. doi:10.1016/j.braindev.2016.01.009
  • Zhang Y, Liu G, Jiang M, Chen W, Su Y. Efficacy of therapeutic plasma exchange in patients with severe refractory anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis. Neurotherapeutics. 2019;16(3):828–837. doi:10.1007/s13311-019-00725-4
  • Zhang Y, Huang H, Chen W, Liu G, Liu F, Su YY. Clinical efficacy of plasma exchange in patients with autoimmune encephalitis. Ann Clin Transl Neurol. 2021;8(4):763–773. doi:10.1002/acn3.51313
  • Thaler FS, Zimmermann L, Kammermeier S, et al. Rituximab treatment and long-term outcome of patients with autoimmune encephalitis: real-world evidence from the GENERATE registry. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm. 2021;8(6):e1088. doi:10.1212/NXI.0000000000001088
  • Dinoto A, Cheli M, Bratina A, Sartori A, Manganotti P. Bortezomib in anti-N-Methyl-d-Aspartate-Receptor (NMDA-R) encephalitis: a systematic review. J Neuroimmunol. 2021;356:577586. doi:10.1016/j.jneuroim.2021.577586
  • Randell RL, Adams AV, Van Mater H. Tocilizumab in refractory autoimmune encephalitis: a series of pediatric cases. Pediatr Neurol. 2018;86:66–68. doi:10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2018.07.016
  • Lee W-J, Lee S-T, Moon J, et al. Tocilizumab in autoimmune encephalitis refractory to rituximab: an institutional cohort study. Neurotherapeutics. 2016;13(4):824–832. doi:10.1007/s13311-016-0442-6
  • Reeves HM, Winters JL The mechanisms of action of plasma exchange. Br J Haematol. 2014;164(3):342–351.
  • Tanaka T, Narazaki M, Kishimoto T IL-6 in inflammation, immunity, and disease. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol. ;6(10):a016295. doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a016295
  • Abulayha A, Bredan A, Enshasy HE, Daniels I Rituximab: modes of action, remaining dispute and future perspective. Future Oncology. 2014;10(15):2481–2492.