Comparison of Salivary Secretion, pH, and Buffer Capacity Between COVID-19 Vaccinated and Unvaccinated Child Patients Visiting Dental Clinics of University Hospitals in Riyadh City, Saudi Arabia

References

• European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. Note from the editors: world health organization declares novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) sixth public health emergency of international concern. Euro Surveill. 2020;25:5.
   Google Scholar
• Ladhani SN, Amin-Chowdhury Z, Davies HG, et al. COVID-19 in children: analysis of the first pandemic peak in England. Arch Dis Child. 2020;105(12):1180–1185. doi:10.1136/archdischild-2020-320042
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bi Q, Wu Y, Mei S, et al. Epidemiology and transmission of COVID-19 in 391 cases and 1286 of their close contacts in Shenzhen, China: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2020;20(8):911–919. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30287-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stockman LJ, Massoudi MS, Helfand R, et al. Severe acute respiratory syndrome in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2007;26(1):68–74. doi:10.1097/01.inf.0000247136.28950.41
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alharbi M, Kazzaz YM, Hameed T, et al. SARS-CoV-2 infection in children, clinical characteristics, diagnostic findings and therapeutic interventions at a tertiary care center in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. J Infect Public Health. 2021;14(4):446–453. doi:10.1016/j.jiph.2020.12.034
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leung Wai C, Kwan Wah Y, Ko Wan P, et al. Severe acute respiratory syndrome among children. Pediatrics. 2004;113(6):e535–543. doi:10.1542/peds.113.6.e535
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. COVID-19 disease in children and adolescents: scientific brief; 2021. Available from: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-2019-nCoV-Sci_Brief-Children_and_adolescents-2021.1.
   Google Scholar
• Li F, Li YY, Liu MJ, et al. Household transmission of SARS-CoV-2 and risk factors for susceptibility and infectivity in Wuhan: a retrospective observational study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2021;21(5):617–628. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30981-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeBiasi RL, Delaney M. Symptomatic and asymptomatic viral shedding in pediatric patients infected with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2): under the surface. JAMA Pediatr. 2021;175(1):16–18. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2020.3996
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Han MS, Choi EH, Chang SH, et al. Clinical characteristics and viral RNA detection in children with coronavirus disease 2019 in the Republic of Korea. JAMA Pediatr. 2021;175(1):73–80. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2020.3988
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu Q, Qin C, Liu M, Liu J. Effectiveness and safety of SARS-CoV-2 vaccine in real-world studies: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Infect Dis Poverty. 2021;10(1):132. doi:10.1186/s40249-021-00915-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• AAPD. COVID-19 Update/Coronavirus Update. Available from: https://www.aapd.org/about/about-aapd/news-room/covid-19/. Accessed December 20, 2023.
   Google Scholar
• Ministry of Health . MOH and SDAIA Release ‘COVID-19 Immunity Passport’ Through ‘Tawakkalna’ Application;2021. Available from: https://www.moh.gov.sa/en/Ministry/MediaCenter/News/Pages/News-2021-01-07-004.aspx.
   Google Scholar
• Ali K, Berman G, Zhou H, et al. Evaluation of mRNA-1273 SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine in Adolescents. N Engl J Med. 2021;385(24):2241–2251. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2109522
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frenck RW, Klein NP, Kitchin N, et al. Safety, Immunogenicity, and Efficacy of the BNT162b2 Covid-19 Vaccine in Adolescents. N Engl J Med. 2021;385(3):239–250. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2107456
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Godinho V. Covid-19: over 90% of students aged 12 and over in Saudi Arabia are vaccinated; 2021. Available from: https://gulfbusiness.com/covid$-$19--over$-$90--of--students--aged$-$12--and--over--in--saudi--arabia--are--vaccinated/. Accessed June 23, 2022.
   Google Scholar
• Walter EB, Talaat KR, Sabharwal C, et al. Evaluation of the BNT162b2 covid-19 vaccine in children 5 to 11 years of age. N Engl J Med. 2022;386(1):35–46. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2116298
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saudi Press Agency. SFDA approves using pfizer vaccine to age category 5–11 the official Saudi press agency; 2021. Available from: https://www.spa.gov.sa/viewfullstory.php?lang=en&newsid=2301189. Accessed June 23, 2022.
   Google Scholar
• Liu L, Wei Q, Alvarez X, et al. Epithelial cells lining salivary gland ducts are early target cells of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection in the upper respiratory tracts of rhesus macaques. J Virol. 2011;85(8):4025–4030. doi:10.1128/JVI.02292-10
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amorim Dos Santos J, Normando AGC, Carvalho da Silva RL, et al. Oral manifestations in patients with COVID-19: a 6-month update. J Dent Res. 2021;100(12):1321–1329. doi:10.1177/00220345211029637
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lim ZY, Ang AXY, Cross GB. COVID-19 associated parotitis. IDCases. 2021;24:e01122.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adam TR, Al-Sharif AI, Tonouhewa A, AlKheraif AA. Prevalence of caries among school children in Saudi Arabia: a meta-analysis. Adv Prev Med. 2022;2022:7132681. doi:10.1155/2022/7132681
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dawes C, Wong DTW. Role of saliva and salivary diagnostics in the advancement of oral health. J Dent Res. 2019;98(2):133–141. doi:10.1177/0022034518816961
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kubala E, Strzelecka P, Grzegocka M, et al. A review of selected studies that determine the physical and chemical properties of saliva in the field of dental treatment. BioMed Res Int. 2018;2018:6572381. doi:10.1155/2018/6572381
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farooq I, Bugshan A. The role of salivary contents and modern technologies in the remineralization of dental enamel: a narrative review. F1000Research. 2020;9:1.
   Google Scholar
• Kim JH, Kim MA, Chae YK, Nam OH. Salivary characteristics, individual casual parameters, and their relationships with the significant caries index among Korean children aged 12 years. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18(6):3118. doi:10.3390/ijerph18063118
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alkhateeb AA, Mancl LA, Presland RB, Rothen ML, Chi DL. Unstimulated saliva-related caries risk factors in individuals with cystic fibrosis: a cross-sectional analysis of unstimulated salivary flow, pH, and buffering capacity. Caries Res. 2017;51(1):1–6. doi:10.1159/000450658
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riad A, Põld A, Kateeb E, Attia S. Oral adverse events following COVID-19 vaccination: analysis of VAERS reports. Front Public Health. 2022;10:952781. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.952781
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moritsuka M, Kitasako Y, Burrow MF, Ikeda M, Tagami J. The pH change after HCl titration into resting and stimulated saliva for a buffering capacity test. Aust Dent J. 2006;51(2):170–174. doi:10.1111/j.1834-7819.2006.tb00422.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Touger-Decker R, van Loveren C. Sugars and dental caries. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003;78(4):881S–892S. doi:10.1093/ajcn/78.4.881S
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cunha-Cruz J, Scott J, Rothen M, et al. Salivary characteristics and dental caries: evidence from general dental practices. J Am Dent Assoc 1939. 2013;144(5):e31–40. doi:10.14219/jada.archive.2013.0159
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Laine MA, Tolvanen M, Pienihäkkinen K, et al. The effect of dietary intervention on paraffin-stimulated saliva and dental health of children participating in a randomized controlled trial. Arch Oral Biol. 2014;59(2):217–225. doi:10.1016/j.archoralbio.2013.11.013
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heintze U, Birkhed D, Björn H. Secretion rate and buffer effect of resting and stimulated whole saliva as a function of age and sex. Swed Dent J. 1983;7(6):227–238.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Alvariño C, Bagan L, Murillo-Cortes J, Calvo J, Bagan J. Stimulated whole salivary flow rate: the most appropriate technique for assessing salivary flow in Sjögren syndrome. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal. 2021;26(3):e404–e407. doi:10.4317/medoral.24736
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dawes C. Salivary flow patterns and the health of hard and soft oral tissues. J Am Dent Assoc. 2008;139:18S–24S. doi:10.14219/jada.archive.2008.0351
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Samnieng P, Ueno M, Shinada K, Zaitsu T, Wright FC, Kawaguchi Y. Association of hyposalivation with oral function, nutrition and oral health in community-dwelling elderly Thai. Community Dent Health. 2012;29(1):117–123.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crossner CG. Salivary flow rate in children and adolescents. Swed Dent J. 1984;8(6):271–276.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sánchez-Pérez L, Irigoyen-Camacho E, Sáenz-Martínez L, Zepeda Zepeda M, Acosta-Gío E, Méndez-Ramírez I. Stability of unstimulated and stimulated whole saliva flow rates in children. Int J Paediatr Dent. 2016;26(5):346–350. doi:10.1111/ipd.12206
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riad A, Pokorná A, Attia S, Klugarová J, Koščík M, Klugar M. Prevalence of COVID-19 vaccine side effects among healthcare workers in the Czech Republic. J Clin Med. 2021;10(7):1428. doi:10.3390/jcm10071428
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riad A, Hocková B, Kantorová L, et al. Side Effects of mRNA-Based COVID-19 Vaccine: nationwide Phase IV study among healthcare workers in Slovakia. Pharmaceuticals. 2021;14(9):873. doi:10.3390/ph14090873
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lapić I, Šegulja D, Rogić D. Assessment of salivary antibody response to BNT162b2 mRNA COVID‐19 vaccination. J Med Virol. 2021;93(9):5257–5259. doi:10.1002/jmv.27096
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Azzi L, Dalla Gasperina D, Veronesi G, et al. Mucosal immune response in BNT162b2 COVID-19 vaccine recipients. EBioMedicine. 2022;75:103788. doi:10.1016/j.ebiom.2021.103788
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alghamdi M, Ingle NA, Baseer MA, Alghamdi M, Ingle NA, Baseer MA. Assessment of Salivary pH, buffer capacity, and flow in COVID-19-infected and vaccinated dental patients. Cureus. 2023;15:5.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baliga S, Muglikar S, Kale R. Salivary pH: a diagnostic biomarker. J Indian Soc Periodontol. 2013;17(4):461–465. doi:10.4103/0972-124X.118317
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Varga G. Physiology of the salivary glands. Surg Oxf. 2012;30(11):578–583.
   Google Scholar
• Bardow A, Moe D, Nyvad B, Nauntofte B. The buffer capacity and buffer systems of human whole saliva measured without loss of CO2. Arch Oral Biol. 2000;45(1):1–12. doi:10.1016/S0003-9969(99)00119-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prodan A, Brand HS, Ligtenberg AJM, et al. Interindividual variation, correlations, and sex-related differences in the salivary biochemistry of young healthy adults. Eur J Oral Sci. 2015;123(3):149–157. doi:10.1111/eos.12182
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Björnstad L, Crossner CG. Stimulated salivary flow rate and buffer effect in schoolchildren from Greenland and Sweden: a comparative study. Acta Odontol Scand. 2007;65(3):162–166. doi:10.1080/00016350601187132
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Inoue H, Ono K, Masuda W, et al. Gender difference in unstimulated whole saliva flow rate and salivary gland sizes. Arch Oral Biol. 2006;51(12):1055–1060. doi:10.1016/j.archoralbio.2006.06.010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar