The immunology of mitral valve stenosis

References

• Miyake CY, Gauvreau K, Tani LY, Sundel RP, Newburger JW. Characteristics of children discharged from hospitals in the United States in 2000 with the diagnosis of acute rheumatic fever. Pediatrics. 2007;120(3):503–508.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Special Writing Group of the Committee on Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis, and Kawasaki Disease of the Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young of the American Heart Association. Guidelines for the diagnosis of rheumatic fever: Jones criteria, 1992 update. JAMA. 1992;268(15):2069–2073.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carapetis JR, Steer AC, Mulholland EK, Weber M. The global burden of group A streptococcal diseases. Lancet Infect Dis. 2005;5(11):685–694.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marijon E, Ou P, Celermajer DS, et al. Prevalence of rheumatic heart disease detected by echocardiographic screening. N Engl J Med. 2007;357(5):470–476.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waller B, Howard J, Fess S. General concepts in the morphologic assessment of operatively excised cardiac valves-Part I. Clin Cardiol. 1994;17(1):41–46.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanson TP, Edwards BS, Edwards JE. Pathology of surgically excised mitral valves. One hundred consecutive cases. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 1985;109(9):823–828.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olson LJ, Subramanian R, Ackermann DM, Orszulak TA, Edwards WD. Surgical pathology of the mitral valve: a study of 712 cases spanning 21 years. Mayo Clin Proc. 1987;62(1):22–34.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheadle WB. Harvean lectures on the various manifestations of the rheumatic state as exemplified in childhood and early life. Lancet. 1889;1:821–832.
   Google Scholar
• Ayoub EM, Barrett DJ, Maclaren NK, Krischer JP. Association of class II human histocompatibility leukocyte antigens with rheumatic fever. J Clin Invest. 1986;77(6):2019–2026.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guilherme L, Weidebach W, Kiss MH, Snitcowsky R, Kalil J. Association of human leukocyte class II antigens with rheumatic fever or rheumatic heart disease in a Brazilian population. Circulation. 1991;83(6):1995–1998.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ozkan M, Carin M, Sönmez G, Senocak M, Ozdemir M, Yakut C. HLA antigens in Turkish race with rheumatic heart disease. Circulation. 1993;87(6):1974–1978.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guédez Y, Kotby A, El-Demellawy M, et al. HLA class II associations with rheumatic heart disease are more evident and consistent among clinically homogeneous patients. Circulation. 1999;99(21):2784–2790.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Visentainer JE, Pereira FC, Dalalio MM, Tsuneto LT, Donadio PR, Moliterno RA. Association of HLA-DR7 with rheumatic fever in the Brazilian population. J Rheumatol. 2000;27(6):1518–1520.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stanevicha V Eglite J, Sochnevs A, Gardovska D, Zavadska D, Shantere R. HLA class II associations with rheumatic heart disease among clinically homogeneous patients in children in Latvia. Arthritis Res Ther. 2003;5(6):R340–R346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hernández-Pacheco G, Flores-Domínguez C, Rodríguez-Pérez JM, et al. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha promoter polymorphisms in Mexican patients with rheumatic heart disease. J Autoimmun. 2003;21(1):59–63.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sallakci N, Akcurin G, Köksoy S, et al. TNF-alpha G-308A polymorphism is associated with rheumatic fever and correlates with increased TNF-alpha production. J Autoimmun. 2005;25(2):150–154.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramasawmy R, Faé KC, Spina G, et al. Association of polymorphisms within the promoter region of the tumor necrosis factor-alpha with clinical outcomes of rheumatic fever. Mol Immunol. 2007;44(8):1873–1878.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Settin A, Abdel-Hady H, El-Baz R, Saber I. Gene polymorphisms of TNF-alpha(-308), IL-10(-1082), IL-6(-174), and IL-1Ra(VNTR) related to susceptibility and severity of rheumatic heart disease. Pediatr Cardiol. 2007;28(5):363–371.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schafranski MD, Stier A, Nisihara R, Messias-Reason IJ. Significantly increased levels of mannose-binding lectin (MBL) in rheumatic heart disease: a beneficial role for MBL deficiency. Clin Exp Immunol. 2004;138(3):521–525.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Messias Reason IJ, Schafranski MD, Jensenius JC, Steffensen R. The association between mannose-binding lectin gene polymorphism and rheumatic heart disease. Hum Immunol. 2006;67(12):991–998.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schafranski MD, Pereira Ferrari L, Scherner D, Torres R, Jensenius JC, de Messias-Reason IJ. High-producing MBL2 genotypes increase the risk of acute and chronic carditis in patients with history of rheumatic fever. Mol Immunol. 2008;45(14):3827–3831.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berdeli A, Celik HA, Ozyürek R, Dogrusoz B, Aydin HH. TLR-2 gene Arg753Gln polymorphism is strongly associated with acute rheumatic fever in children. J Mol Med. 2005;83(7):535–541.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhu L, Zou LJ, Hua R, Li B. Association of single-nucleotide polymorphisms in toll-like receptor 5 gene with rheumatic heart disease in Chinese Han population. Int J Cardiol. 2010;145(1):129–130.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Messias-Reason IJ, Schafranski MD, Kremsner PG, Kun JF. Ficolin 2 (FCN2) functional polymorphisms and the risk of rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease. Clin Exp Immunol. 2009;157(3):395–399.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chou HT, Chen CH, Tsai CH, Tsai FJ. Association between transforming growth factor-beta1 gene C-509T and T869C polymorphisms and rheumatic heart disease. Am Heart J. 2004;148(1):181–186.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kamal H, Hussein G, Hassoba H, Mosaad N, Gad A, Ismail M. Transforming growth factor-beta1 gene C-509T and T869C polymorphisms as possible risk factors in rheumatic heart disease in Egypt. Acta Cardiol. 2010;65(2):177–183.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Azevedo PM, Bauer R, Caparbo Vde F, Silva CA, Bonfa E, Pereira RM. Interleukin-1 receptor antagonist gene (IL1RN) polymorphism possibly associated to severity of rheumatic carditis in a Brazilian cohort. Cytokne. 2010;49(1):109–113.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cunningham MW. Pathogenesis of group A streptococcal infections. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2000;13(3):470–511.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guilherme L, Kalil J, Cunningham M. Molecular mimicry in the autoimmune pathogenesis of rheumatic heart disease. Autoimmunity. 2006;39(1):31–39.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shikhman AR, Cunningham MW. Immunological mimicry between N-acetyl-beta-D-glucosamine and cytokeratin peptides. Evidence for a microbially driven anti-keratin antibody response. J Immunol. 1994;152(9):4375–4387.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cunningham MW, Hall NK, Krisher KK, Spanier AM. A study of anti-group A streptococcal monoclonal antibodies cross-reactive with myosin. J Immunol. 1986;136(1):293–298.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galvin JE, Hemric ME, Kosanke SD, Factor SM, Quinn A, Cunningham MW. Induction of myocarditis and valvulitis in Lewis rats by different epitopes of cardiac myosin and its implications in rheumatic carditis. Am J Pathol. 2002;160(1):297–306.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galvin JE, Hemric ME, Ward K, Cunningham MW. Cytotoxic mAB from rheumatic carditis recognizes heart valves and laminin. J Clin Invest. 2000;106(2):217–224.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guliza JM, Cunningham MW, McManus BM. . Anti-streptococcal monoclonal antibodies recognize multiple epitopes in human heart valves: cardiac myosin, vimentin and elastin as potential valvular autoantigens. In: Orefici G, editor. New Perspectives on Streptococci and Streptococcal Infections. Proceedings of the XI Lancefield International Symposium (Zentralbl Bakteriol Suppl 22). New York. NY: Gustav-Fischer-Verlag; 1992:267–269.
   Google Scholar
• Shikhman AR, Greenspan NS, Cunningham MW. Cytokeratin peptide SFGSGFGGGY mimics N-acetyl-beta-D-glucosamine in reaction with antibodies and lectins, and induces in vivo anti-carbohydrate antibody response. J Immunol. 1994;153(12):5593–5606.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guilherme L, Cunha-Neto E, Coelho V et al. Human heart-infiltrating T-cell clones from rheumatic heart disease patients recognize both streptococcal and cardiac proteins. Circulation. 1995;92(3):415–420.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fae KC, da Silva DD, Oshiro SE, et al. Mimicry in recognition of cardiac myosin peptides by heart-intralesional T cell clones from rheumatic heart disease. J Immunol. 2006;176(9):5662–5670.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guilherme L, Oshiro SE, Fae KC, et al. T-cell reactivity against streptococcal antigens in the periphery mirrors reactivity of heart-infiltrating T lymphocytes in rheumatic heart disease patients. Infect Immun. 2001;69(9):5345–5351.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cunningham MW. T cell mimicry in inflammatory heart disease. Mol Immunol. 2004;40(14–15):1121–1127.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellis NM, Li Y, Hildebrand W, Fischetti VA, Cunningham MW. T cell mimicry and epitope specificity of cross-reactive T cell clones from rheumatic heart disease. J Immunol. 2005;175(8):5448–5456.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fae KC, Diefenbach da Silva D, Bilate AMB, et al. PDIA3, HSPA5 and vimentin, proteins identified by 2-DE in the valvular tissue, are the target antigens of peripheral and heart infiltrating T cells from chronic rheumatic heart disease patients. J Autoimmun. 2008;31(2):136–141.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mayer M, Kies U, Kammermeier R, Buchner J. BiP and PDI cooperate in the oxidative folding of antibodies in vitro. J Biol Chem. 2000;275(38):29421–29425.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lievremont JP, Rizzuto R, Hendershot L, Meldolesi J. BiP, a major chaperone protein of the endoplasmic reticulum lumen, plays a direct and important role in the storage of the rapidly exchanging pool of Ca2+. J Biol Chem. 1997;272(49):30873–30879.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hasty DL, Ofek I, Courtney HS, Doyle RJ. Multiple adhesins of streptococci. Infect Immun. 1992;60(6):2147–2152.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Natanson S, Sela S, Moses AE, Musser JM, Caparon MG, Hanski E. Distribution of fibronectin-binding proteins among group A streptococci of different M types. J Infect Dis. 1995;171(4):871–878.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frick IM, Schmidtchen A, Sjöbring U. Interactions between M proteins of Streptococcus pyogenes and glycosaminoglycans promote bacterial adhesion to host cells. Eur J Biochem. 2003;270(10):2303–2311.
   Google Scholar
• Fischetti VA, Horstmann RD, Pancholi V. Location of the complement factor H binding site on streptococcal M6 protein. Infect Immun. 1995;63(1):149–153.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sandson J, Hamerman D, Janis R, Rojkind M. Immunologic and chemical similarities between the streptococcus and human connective tissue. Trans Assoc Am Physicians. 1968;81:249–257.
   Google Scholar
• Cywes C, Stamenkovic I, Wessels MR. CD44 as a receptor for colonization of the pharynx by group A Streptococcus. J Clin Invest. 2000;106(8):995–1002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Narin N, Kütükçüler N, Ozyürek R, Bakiler AR, Parlar A, Arcasoy M. Lymphocyte subsets and plasma IL-1 alpha, IL-2, and TNF-alpha concentrations in acute rheumatic fever and chronic rheumatic heart disease. Clin Immunol Immunopathol. 1995;77(2):172–176.
   Google Scholar
• Yegin O, Coskun M, Ertug H. Cytokines in acute rheumatic fever. Eur JPediatr. 1997;156(1):25–29.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morris K, Mohan C, Wahi PL, Anand IS, Ganguly NK. Enhancement of IL-1, IL-2 production and IL-2 receptor generation in patients with acute rheumatic fever and active rheumatic heart disease: a prospective study. Clin Exp Immunol. 1993;91(3):429–436.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guilherme L, Kalil J. Rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease: cellular mechanisms leading autoimmune reactivity and disease. J Clin Immunol. 2010;30(1):17–23.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cunningham MW. Autoimmunity and molecular mimicry in the pathogenesis of post-streptococcal heart disease. Front Biosci. 2003;8:s533–s543.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mariscalco G, Lorusso R, Sessa F, et al. Imbalance between pro-angiogenic and anti-angiogenic factors in rheumatic and mixomatous mitral valves. Int J Cardiol. 2010 Sep 10. Epub ahead of print.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoshioka M, Yuasa S, Matsumura K, et al. Chondromodulin-I maintains cardiac valvular function by preventing angiogenesis. Nat Med. 2006;12(10):1151–1159.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kimura N, Shukunami C, Hakuno D, et al. Local tenomodulin absence, angiogenesis, and matrix metalloproteinase activation are associated with the rupture of the chordae tendineae cordis. Circulation. 2008;118(17):1737–1747.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hakuno D, Kimura N, Yoshioka M, et al. Periostin advances atherosclerotic and rheumatic cardiac valve degeneration by inducing angiogenesis and MMP production in humans and rodents. J Clin Invest. 2010;120(7):2292–2306.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guilherme L, Cury P, Demarchi LM, et al. Rheumatic heart disease: proinflammatory cytokines play a role in the progression and maintenance of valvular lesions. Am J Pathol. 2004;165(5):1583–1591.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marcus RH, Sareli P, Pocock WA, Barlow JB. The spectrum of severe rheumatic mitral valve disease in a developing country. Correlations among clinical presentation, surgical pathologic findings, and hemodynamic sequelae. Ann Intern Med. 1994;120(3):177–183.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Selzer A, Cohn KE. Natural history of mitral stenosis: a review. Circulation. 1972;45(4):878–890.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chopra P, Gulwani H. Pathology and pathogenesis of rheumatic heart disease. Indian J Pathol Microbiol. 2007;50(4):685–697.
   Google Scholar
• Gerber MA, Baltimore RS, Eaton CB, et al. Prevention of rheumatic fever and diagnosis and treatment of acute Streptococcal pharyngitis: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis, and Kawasaki Disease Committee of the Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, the Interdisciplinary Council on Functional Genomics and Translational Biology, and the Interdisciplinary Council on Quality of Care and Outcomes Research: endorsed by the American Academy of Pediatrics. Circulation. 2009;119(11):1541–1551.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Breda L, Nozzi M, De Sanctis S, Chiarelli F. Laboratory tests in the diagnosis and follow-up of pediatric rheumatic diseases: an update. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 2010;40(1):53–72.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rayamajhi A, Sharma D, Shakya U. First-episode versus recurrent acute rheumatic fever: is it different? Pediatr Int. 2009;51(2):269–275.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumar R, Raizada A, Aggarwal AK, Ganguly NK. A community-based rheumatic fever/rheumatic heart disease cohort: twelve-year experience. Indian Heart J. 2002;54(1):54–58.
   Google Scholar
• Pelajo CF, Lopez-Benitez JM, Torres JM, de Oliveira SK. Adherence to secondary prophylaxis and disease recurrence in 536 Brazilian children with rheumatic fever. Pediatr Rheumatol Online J. 2010;8:22.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meira ZM, Goulart EM, Colosimo EA, Mota CC. Long term follow up of rheumatic fever and predictors of severe rheumatic valvar disease in Brazilian children and adolescents. Heart. 2005;91(8):1019–1022.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwartz RH, Wientzen RL Jr, Pedreira F, Feroli EJ, Mella GW, Guandolo VL. Penicillin V for group A streptococcal pharyngotonsillitis. A randomized trial of seven vs ten days’ therapy. JAMA. 1981;246(16):1790–1795.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bisno AL, Gerber MA, Gwaltney JM Jr, Kaplan EL, Schwartz RH; Infectious Diseases Society of America. Practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of group A streptococcal pharyngitis. Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;35(2):113–125.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erdem G, Sinclair S, Marrone JR, et al. Higher rates of streptococcal colonization among children in the Pacific Rim Region correlates with higher rates of group A streptococcal disease and sequelae. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2010;16(5):452–455.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dajani AS. Current status of nonsuppurative complications of group A streptococci. Pedia.tr Infect Dis J. 1991;10(10 Suppl):S25–S27.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar