Purposeful Review to Identify Risk Factors, Epidemiology, Clinical Features, Treatment and Prevention of Chronic Kidney Disease of Unknown Etiology

References

• Webster AC, Nagler EV, Morton RL, Masson P. Chronic kidney disease. Lancet. 2017;389(10075):1238–1252. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)32064-527887750
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ene-Iordache B, Perico N, Bikbov B, et al. Chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular risk in six regions of the world (ISN-KDDC): a cross-sectional study. Lancet Glob Health. 2016;4(5):e307–19. doi:10.1016/S2214-109X(16)00071-127102194
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Couser WG, Remuzzi G, Mendis S, Tonelli M. The contribution of chronic kidney disease to the global burden of major non-communicable diseases. Kidney Int. 2011;80(12):1258–1270. doi:10.1038/ki.2011.36821993585
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Correa-Rotter R, Wesseling C, Johnson RJ. CKD of unknown origin in Central America: the case for a Mesoamerican nephropathy. Am J Kidney Dis. 2014;63(3):506–520. doi:10.1053/j.ajkd.2013.10.06224412050
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodríguez MI. Sounding the alarm on chronic kidney disease in farming communities: María Isabel Rodríguez MD. Minister of health, El Salvador. Interview by Conner Gorry. MEDICC Rev. 2013;15(3):8.23934420
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rajapurkar MM, John GT, Kirpalani AL, et al. What do we know about chronic kidney disease in India: first report of the Indian CKD registry. BMC Nephrol. 2012;13(1):10. doi:10.1186/1471-2369-13-1022390203
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tuot DS, Zhu Y, Velasquez A, et al. Variation in patients’ awareness of CKD according to how they are asked. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2016;11(9):1566–1573. doi:10.2215/CJN.0049011627340288
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herrera R, Orantes CM, Almaguer M, et al. Clinical characteristics of chronic kidney disease of nontraditional causes in Salvadoran farming communities. MEDICC Rev. 2014;16:39–48.24878648
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levin A, Stevens PE, Bilous RW, et al. KDIGO 2012 clinical practice guideline for the evaluation and management of chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int Suppl. 2013;3(1):1–50.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caplin B, Yang CW, Anand S, et al. The international society of nephrology’s international consortium of collaborators on chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology: report of the working group on approaches to population-level detection strategies and recommendations for a minimum dataset. Kidney Int. 2019;95(1):4–10. doi:10.1016/j.kint.2018.08.01930606428
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pan American Health Organization. Epidemic of chronic kidney disease in agricultural communities in Central America. Case definitions, methodological basis and approaches for public health surveillance. Washington, DC: Pan American Health Organization; 2017 Available from: http://iris.paho.org/xmlui/handle/123456789/34132. Accessed 1130, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Athuraliya NT, Abeysekera TD, Amerasinghe PH, et al. Uncertain etiologies of proteinuric-chronic kidney disease in rural Sri Lanka. Kidney Int. 2011;80(11):1212–1221. doi:10.1038/ki.2011.25821832982
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramirez-Rubio O, McClean MD, Amador JJ, Brooks DR. An Epidemic of Chronic Kidney Disease in Central America: An Overview. 2013:123–125.
   Google Scholar
• Fischer RS, Vangala C, Truong L, et al. Early detection of acute tubulointerstitial nephritis in the genesis of Mesoamerican nephropathy. Kidney Int. 2018;93(3):681–690. doi:10.1016/j.kint.2017.09.01229162294
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fischer RS, Mandayam S, Chavarria D, et al. Clinical evidence of acute Mesoamerican nephropathy. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2017;97(4):1247–1256. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.17-026028722618
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fischer RS, Vangala C, Mandayam S, et al. Clinical markers to predict progression from acute to chronic kidney disease in Mesoamerican nephropathy. Kidney Int. 2018;94(6):1205–1216. doi:10.1016/j.kint.2018.08.02030466566
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Senevirathna L, Abeysekera T, Nanayakkara S, et al. Risk factors associated with disease progression and mortality in chronic kidney disease of uncertain etiology: a cohort study in Medawachchiya, Sri Lanka. Environ Health Prev Med. 2012;17(3):191–198. doi:10.1007/s12199-011-0237-721881957
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jayasekara KB, Kulasooriya PN, Wijayasiri KN, et al. Relevance of heat stress and dehydration to chronic kidney disease (CKDu) in Sri Lanka. Prev Med Rep. 2019;1(15):100928. doi:10.1016/j.pmedr.2019.100928
   Google Scholar
• Abeyagunawardena AS, Shroff R. CKDu: The Known Unknowns. Pediatric Nephrology (Berlin, Germany). 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Jimenez CA, Ishimoto T, Lanaspa MA, et al. Fructokinase activity mediates dehydration-induced renal injury. Kidney Int. 2014;86(2):294–302. doi:10.1038/ki.2013.49224336030
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ratnayake S, Badurdeen Z, Nanayakkara N, Abeysekara T, Ratnatunga N, Kumarasiri R. Screening for chronic kidney disease of uncertain aetiology in Sri Lanka: usability of surrogate biomarkers over dipstick proteinuria. BMC Nephrol. 2017;18(1):199. doi:10.1186/s12882-017-0610-x28629425
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Silva PM, Mohammed Abdul KS, Eakanayake EM, Jayasinghe SS, Jayasumana C, Asanthi HB. Urinary biomarkers KIM-1 and NGAL for detection of chronic kidney disease of uncertain etiology (CKDu) among agricultural communities in Sri Lanka. PLOS Negl Trop Dis. 2016;10(9):e0004979. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.000497927643785
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elledge MF, Redmon JH, Levine KE, Wickremasinghe RJ, Wanigasariya KP, Peiris-John RJ. Chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology in Sri Lanka: quest for understanding and global implications In: RTI Press Research Brief [Internet]. RTI press; 2014.
   Google Scholar
• Gifford FJ, Gifford RM, Eddleston M, Dhaun N. Endemic nephropathy around the world. Kidney Int Rep. 2017;2(2):282–292. doi:10.1016/j.ekir.2016.11.00328367535
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abraham G, Varughese S, Thandavan T, et al. Chronic kidney disease hotspots in developing countries in South Asia. Clin Kidney J. 2016;9(1):135–141. doi:10.1093/ckj/sfv10926798474
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramírez-Rubio O, Amador JJ, Kaufman JS, et al. Urine biomarkers of kidney injury among adolescents in Nicaragua, a region affected by an epidemic of chronic kidney disease of unknown aetiology. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2016;31(3):424–432. doi:10.1093/ndt/gfv29226311057
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cuadra S, Hogstedt C, Jakobsson K, et al. Chronic kidney disease: assessment of current knowledge and feasibility for regional research collaboration in Central America. Available from: http://www.iret.una.ac.cr/Publications/01-0008.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Wesseling C, de Joode BV, Crowe J, et al. Mesoamerican nephropathy: geographical distribution and time trends of chronic kidney disease mortality between 1970 and 2012 in Costa Rica. Occup Environ Med. 2015;72(10):714–721. doi:10.1136/oemed-2014-10279926199395
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stanifer JW, Jing B, Tolan S, et al. The epidemiology of chronic kidney disease in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Glob Health. 2014;2(3):e174–81. doi:10.1016/S2214-109X(14)70002-625102850
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valcke M, Levasseur ME, da Silva AS, Wesseling C. Pesticide exposures and chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology: an epidemiologic review. Environ Health. 2017;16(1):49. doi:10.1186/s12940-017-0254-028535811
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wesseling C, Aragón A, González M, et al. Heat stress, hydration and uric acid: a cross-sectional study in workers of three occupations in a hotspot of Mesoamerican nephropathy in Nicaragua. BMJ Open. 2016;6(12):e011034. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2016-011034
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jayasekara JM, Dissanayake DM, Adhikari SB, Bandara P. Geographical distribution of chronic kidney disease of unknown origin in North Central Region of Sri Lanka. Ceylon Med J. 2013;58(1):6–10. doi:10.4038/cmj.v58i1.535623549716
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nanayakkara S, Stmld S, Abeysekera T, et al. An integrative study of the genetic, social and environmental determinants of chronic kidney disease characterized by tubulointerstitial damages in the North Central Region of Sri Lanka. J Occup Health. 2013;13–0172.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beker BM, Corleto MG, Fieiras C, Musso CG. Novel acute kidney injury biomarkers: their characteristics, utility and concerns. Int Urol Nephrol. 2018;50(4):705–713. doi:10.1007/s11255-017-1781-x29307055
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Health (US), Centers for Disease Control, Prevention (US), Human Services Dept (US). editors. NIOSH Criteria for a Recommended Standard: Occupational Exposure to Heat and Hot Environments. National Institute on Drug Abuse; 2018.
   Google Scholar
• Crowe J, Nilsson M, Kjellstrom T, Wesseling C. Heat‐related symptoms in sugarcane harvesters. Am J Ind Med. 2015;58(5):541–548. doi:10.1002/ajim.2245025851165
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lundgren K, Kuklane K, Gao C, Holmer I. Effects of heat stress on working populations when facing climate change. Ind Health. 2013;51(1):3–15. doi:10.2486/indhealth.2012-008923411752
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wesseling C, Crowe J, Hogstedt C, Jakobsson K, Lucas R, Wegman DH. Resolving the enigma of the mesoamerican nephropathy: a research workshop summary. Am J Kidney Dis. 2014;63(3):396–404. doi:10.1053/j.ajkd.2013.08.01424140367
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Venkatachalam MA, Weinberg JM, Kriz W, Bidani AK. Failed tubule recovery, AKI-CKD transition, and kidney disease progression. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2015;26(8):1765–1776. doi:10.1681/ASN.201501000625810494
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glaser J, Lemery J, Rajagopalan B, et al. Climate change and the emergent epidemic of CKD from heat stress in rural communities: the case for heat stress nephropathy. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2016;11(8):1472–1483. doi:10.2215/CJN.1384121527151892
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jayasumana C, Orantes C, Herrera R, et al. Chronic interstitial nephritis in agricultural communities: a worldwide epidemic with social, occupational and environmental determinants. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2017;32(2):234–241.28186530
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Redmon JH, Elledge MF, Womack DS, et al. Additional perspectives on chronic kidney disease of unknown aetiology (CKDu) in Sri Lanka–lessons learned from the WHO CKDu population prevalence study. BMC Nephrol. 2014;15(1):1. doi:10.1186/1471-2369-15-12524386889
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levin A, Tonelli M, Bonventre J, et al. Global kidney health 2017 and beyond: a roadmap for closing gaps in care, research, and policy. Lancet. 2017;390(10105):1888–1917. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30788-228434650
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson RJ, Sánchez-Lozada LG. Mesoamerican nephropathy—new clues to the cause. Nat Rev Nephrol. 2013;9(10):560–561. doi:10.1038/nrneph.2013.17423999393
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roncal-Jimenez C, Lanaspa MA, Jensen T, Sanchez-Lozada LG, Johnson RJ. Mechanisms by which dehydration may lead to chronic kidney disease. Ann Nutr Metab. 2015;66(Suppl. 3):10–13. doi:10.1159/000381239
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jimenez CR, Ishimoto T, Lanaspa MA, et al. Dehydration-induced renal Injury: a fructokinase mediated disease? Kidney Int. 2013.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• García-Trabanino R, Jarquín E, Wesseling C, et al. Heat stress, dehydration, and kidney function in sugarcane cutters in El Salvador–a cross-shift study of workers at risk of Mesoamerican nephropathy. Environ Res. 2015;1(142):746–755. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2015.07.007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rojas-Valverde D, Olcina GJ, Gutierrez Vargas R, Crowe J. Heat strain, external workload and chronic kidney disease in tropical settings: are endurance athletes exposed? Front Physiol. 2019;10:1403. doi:10.3389/fphys.2019.0140331824329
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petejova N, Martinek A. Acute kidney injury due to rhabdomyolysis and renal replacement therapy: a critical review. Crit Care. 2014;18(3):224. doi:10.1186/cc1389725043142
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roncal-Jimenez C, García-Trabanino R, Barregard L, et al. Heat stress nephropathy from exercise-induced uric acid crystalluria: a perspective on Mesoamerican nephropathy. Am J Kidney Dis. 2016;67(1):20–30. doi:10.1053/j.ajkd.2015.08.02126455995
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Madero M, García-Arroyo FE, Sánchez-Lozada LG. Pathophysiologic insight into MesoAmerican nephropathy. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens. 2017;26(4):296–302. doi:10.1097/MNH.000000000000033128426518
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Selvarajah M, Weeratunga P, Sivayoganthan S, Rathnatunga N, Rajapakse S. Clinico pathological correlates of chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology in Sri Lanka. Indian J Nephrol. 2016;26(5):357. doi:10.4103/0971-4065.16728027795631
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vos T, Abajobir AA, Abate KH, et al. Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 328 diseases and injuries for 195 countries, 1990–2016: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2016. Lancet. 2017;390(10100):1211–1259.28919117
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seguro AC, Andrade L. Pathophysiology of leptospirosis. Shock. 2013;1(39):17–23. doi:10.1097/SHK.0b013e31828fae49
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang CW. Leptospirosis renal disease: emerging culprit of chronic kidney disease unknown etiology. Nephron. 2018;138(2):129–136. doi:10.1159/00048069128926845
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gamage CD, Sarathkumara YD. Chronic kidney disease of uncertain etiology in Sri Lanka: are leptospirosis and hantaviral infection likely causes? Med Hypotheses. 2016;1(91):16–19. doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2016.04.009
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daher FE. Leptospirosis-associated acute kidney injury. J Bras Nefrol. 2010;32(4):400–407.21541455
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yang HY, Hung CC, Liu SH, et al. Overlooked risk for chronic kidney disease after leptospiral infection: a population-based survey and epidemiological cohort evidence. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2015;9(10):e0004105. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.000410526452161
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wesseling C, Crowe J, Hogstedt C, Jakobsson K, Lucas R, Wegman D. Mesoamerican nephropathy: report from the first international research workshop on MeN. Heredia: SALTRA, IRET-UNA; 2013 Available from: http://www.regionalnephropathy.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Techn.
   Google Scholar
• González-Quiroz M, Pearce N, Caplin B, Nitsch D. What do epidemiological studies tell us about chronic kidney disease of undetermined cause in Meso-America? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Kidney J. 2018;11(4):496–506. doi:10.1093/ckj/sfx13630094014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chandrajith R, Nanayakkara S, Itai K, et al. Chronic kidney diseases of uncertain etiology (CKDue) in Sri Lanka: geographic distribution and environmental implications. Environ Geochem Health. 2011;33(3):267–278. doi:10.1007/s10653-010-9339-120853020
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nanayakkara S, Senevirathna ST, Parahitiyawa NB, et al. Whole-exome sequencing reveals genetic variants associated with chronic kidney disease characterized by tubulointerstitial damages in North Central Region, Sri Lanka. Environ Health Prev Med. 2015;20(5):354–359. doi:10.1007/s12199-015-0475-126108971
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siddarth M, Datta SK, Ahmed RS, Banerjee BD, Kalra OP, Tripathi AK. Association of CYP1A1 gene polymorphism with chronic kidney disease: a case control study. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol. 2013;36(1):164–170. doi:10.1016/j.etap.2013.03.00823619522
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brooks CJ, Gortmaker SL, Long MW, Cradock AL, Kenney EL. Racial/ethnic and socioeconomic disparities in hydration status among US adults and the role of tap water and other beverage intake. Am J Public Health. 2017;107(9):1387–1394. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2017.30392328727528
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bodin T, García-Trabanino R, Weiss I, et al. Intervention to reduce heat stress and improve efficiency among sugarcane workers in El Salvador: Phase 1. Occup Environ Med. 2016;73(6):409–416.27073211
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balasooriya S, Munasinghe H, Herath AT, et al. Possible links between groundwater geochemistry and chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology (CKDu): an investigation from the Ginnoruwa region in Sri Lanka. Expos Health. 2019;17:1–2.
   Google Scholar
• Nanayakkara S, Senevirathna ST, Harada KH, et al. Systematic evaluation of exposure to trace elements and minerals in patients with chronic kidney disease of uncertain etiology (CKDu) in Sri Lanka. J Trace Elem Med Biol. 2019;1(54):206–213. doi:10.1016/j.jtemb.2019.04.019
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jayasumana C, Gunatilake S, Senanayake P. Glyphosate, hard water and nephrotoxic metals: are they the culprits behind the epidemic of chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology in Sri Lanka? Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2014;11(2):2125–2147. doi:10.3390/ijerph11020212524562182
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wanigasuriya KP, Peiris-John RJ, Wickremasinghe R. Chronic kidney disease of unknown aetiology in Sri Lanka: is cadmium a likely cause? BMC Nephrol. 2011;12(1):32. doi:10.1186/1471-2369-12-3221726464
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thammitiyagodage MG, Gunatillaka MM, Ekanayaka N, et al. Ingestion of dug well water from an area with high prevalence of chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology (CKDu) and development of kidney and liver lesions in rats. Ceylon Med J. 2017;62(1):20. doi:10.4038/cmj.v62i1.842828390327
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chandrajith R, Dissanayake CB, Ariyarathna T, Herath HM, Padmasiri JP. Dose-dependent Na and Ca in fluoride-rich drinking water—another major cause of chronic renal failure in tropical arid regions. Sci Total Environ. 2011;409(4):671–675. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2010.10.04621109289
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• International expert consultation on chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology [Internet]. World Health Organization, Country Office for Sri Lanka; 2016 [cited 1120, 2020]. Available from: https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/255137.
   Google Scholar
• Perera T, Ranasinghe S, Alles N, Waduge R. Experimental rat model for acute tubular injury induced by high water hardness and high water fluoride: efficacy of primary preventive intervention by distilled water administration. BMC Nephrol. 2020;21(1):1–6. doi:10.1186/s12882-020-01763-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khandare AL, Reddy YS, Balakrishna N, Rao GS, Gangadhar T, Arlappa N. Role of drinking water with high silica and strontium in chronic kidney disease: an exploratory community-based study in an Indian Village. Indian J Community Health. 2015;27(1):95–102.
   Google Scholar
• Raines N, González M, Wyatt C, et al. Risk factors for reduced glomerular filtration rate in a Nicaraguan community affected by Mesoamerican nephropathy. MEDICC Rev. 2014;16:16–22.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McClean M, Amador JJ, Laws R, et al. Biological Sampling Report: Investigating Biomarkers of Kidney Injury and Chronic Kidney Disease Among Workers in Western Nicaragua. Boston: University School of Public Health: Compliance Advisor Ombudman; 2012.
   Google Scholar
• Baran MJ, Cibiński M. Glyphosate-based phospho-organic herbicides–an outline of action, metabolism and the selected effects on humans and other organisms. Arch Physiother Glob Res. 2014;18(1):35–45. doi:10.15442/apgr.19.2.10
   Google Scholar
• Jayasumana C, Fonseka S, Fernando A, et al. Phosphate fertilizer is a main source of arsenic in areas affected with chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology in Sri Lanka. SpringerPlus. 2015;4(1):90. doi:10.1186/s40064-015-0868-z25763302
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zheng L, Kuo CC, Fadrowski J, Agnew J, Weaver VM, Navas-Acien A. Arsenic and chronic kidney disease: a systematic review. Curr Environ Health Rep. 2014;1(3):192–207. doi:10.1007/s40572-014-0024-x25221743
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bánfalvi G. Cellular Effects of Heavy Metals. New York: Springer; 2011.
   Google Scholar
• Laws RL, Brooks DR, Amador JJ, et al. Biomarkers of kidney injury among Nicaraguan sugarcane workers. Am J Kidney Dis. 2016;67(2):209–217. doi:10.1053/j.ajkd.2015.08.02226454687
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanoff SL, Callejas L, Alonso CD, et al. Positive association of renal insufficiency with agriculture employment and unregulated alcohol consumption in Nicaragua. Ren Fail. 2010;32(7):766–777. doi:10.3109/0886022X.2010.49433320662688
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lebov JF, Engel LS, Richardson D, Hogan SL, Hoppin JA, Sandler DP. Pesticide use and risk of end-stage renal disease among licensed pesticide applicators in the agricultural health study. Occup Environ Med. 2016;73(1):3–12. doi:10.1136/oemed-2014-10261526177651
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siriwardhana EA, Perera PA, Sivakanesan R, Abeysekara T, Nugegoda DB, Jayaweera JA. Dehydration and malaria augment the risk of developing chronic kidney disease in Sri Lanka. Indian J Nephrol. 2015;25(3):146. doi:10.4103/0971-4065.14071226060363
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Murray KO, Fischer RSB, Chavarria D, Christiane Duttmann MN, Garcia RG, Peter J. Mesoamerican Nephropathy: A Neglected Tropical Disease with an Infectious Etiology? 2015:671–675.
   Google Scholar
• Gamage CD, Yoshimatsu K, Sarathkumara YD, Kulendiran T, Nanayakkara N, Arikawa J. Serological evidence of hantavirus infection in Girandurukotte, an area endemic for chronic kidney disease of unknown aetiology (CKDu) in Sri Lanka. Int J Infect Dis. 2017;1(57):77–78. doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2017.02.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peraza S, Wesseling C, Aragon A, et al. Decreased kidney function among agricultural workers in El Salvador. Am J Kidney Dis. 2012;59(4):531–540. doi:10.1053/j.ajkd.2011.11.03922300650
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wijkström J, Leiva R, Elinder CG, et al. Clinical and pathological characterization of Mesoamerican nephropathy: a new kidney disease in Central America. Am J Kidney Dis. 2013;62(5):908–918. doi:10.1053/j.ajkd.2013.05.01923850447
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nanayakkara S, Senevirathna ST, Karunaratne U, et al. Evidence of tubular damage in the very early stage of chronic kidney disease of uncertain etiology in the north central province of Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study. Environ Health Prev Med. 2012;17(2):109–117. doi:10.1007/s12199-011-0224-z21710150
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brooks D, McClean M. Boston University Investigation of Chronic Kidney Disease in Western Nicaragua, 2009–2012. Boston, MA: Boston University School of Public Health; 2012.
   Google Scholar
• Wijkström J, Jayasumana C, Dassanayake R, et al. Morphological and clinical findings in Sri Lankan patients with chronic kidney disease of unknown cause (CKDu): similarities and differences with Mesoamerican nephropathy. PLoS One. 2018;13(3):e0193056. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.019305629513702
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• López-Marín L, Chávez Y, García XA, et al. Histopathology of chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology in Salvadoran agricultural communities. MEDICC Rev. 2014;16:49–54.24878649
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elinder CG, Wernerson A, Wijkstrom J. Mesoamerican nephropathy (MeN). A “new” chronic kidney disease related to occupational heat exposure with repeated deprivation of salts and water. Int J Nephrol Kidney Fail. 2015;1(2):1–9.
   Google Scholar
• Watts N, Adger WN, Ayeb-Karlsson S, et al. The lancet countdown: tracking progress on health and climate change. Lancet. 2017;389(10074):1151–1164. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)32124-927856085
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wegman D, Crowe J, Hogstedt C, Jakobsson K, Wesseling C. Mesoamerican Nephropathy: Report from the Second International Research Workshop on MeN. 2016.
   Google Scholar
• Roncal-Jimenez CA, Sato Y, Milagres T, et al. Experimental heat stress nephropathy and liver injury are improved by allopurinol. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2018;315(3):F726–33. doi:10.1152/ajprenal.00543.201729667911
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rajapakse S, Shivanthan MC, Selvarajah M. Chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology in Sri Lanka. Int J Occup Environ Health. 2016;22(3):259–264. doi:10.1080/10773525.2016.120309727399161
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goicoechea M, de Vinuesa SG, Verdalles U, et al. Effect of allopurinol in chronic kidney disease progression and cardiovascular risk. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2010;5(8):1388–1393. doi:10.2215/CJN.0158021020538833
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson RJ, Wesseling C, Newman LS. Chronic kidney disease of unknown cause in agricultural communities. N Engl J Med. 2019;380(19):1843–1852. doi:10.1056/NEJMra181386931067373
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Polo VS, Garcia-Trabanino R, Rodriguez G, Madero M. Mesoamerican nephropathy (MeN): what we know so far. Int J Nephrol Renovasc Dis. 2020;13:261.33116757
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Di Iorio BR, Bellasi A, Raphael KL, et al. Treatment of metabolic acidosis with sodium bicarbonate delays progression of chronic kidney disease: the UBI Study. J Nephrol. 2019;32(6):989–1001. doi:10.1007/s40620-019-00656-531598912
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sánchez-Lozada LG, García-Arroyo FE, Gonzaga G, et al. Kidney injury from recurrent heat stress and rhabdomyolysis: protective role of allopurinol and sodium bicarbonate. Am J Nephrol. 2018;48(5):339–348. doi:10.1159/00049466330391956
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Butler-Dawson J, Krisher L, Asensio C, et al. Risk factors for declines in kidney function in sugarcane workers in Guatemala. J Occup Environ Med. 2018;60(6):548. doi:10.1097/JOM.000000000000128429370016
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aguilar-Ramirez D, Raña-Custodio A, Villa A, et al. Decreased kidney function and agricultural work: a cross-sectional study in middle-aged adults from Tierra Blanca, Mexico. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2020. doi:10.1093/ndt/gfaa041
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar