2,553
Views
60
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Vulvar Lichen Sclerosus: Current Perspectives

, , & ORCID Icon
Pages 11-20 | Published online: 15 Jan 2020

References

  • Cooper SM, Gao XH, Powell JJ, et al. Does treatment of vulvar lichen sclerosus influence its prognosis? Arch Dermatol. 2004;140:702–706. doi:10.1001/archderm.140.6.702
  • Schlosser BJ, Mirowski GW. Lichen sclerosus and lichen planus in women and girls. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 2015;58(1):125–142. doi:10.1097/GRF.0000000000000090
  • Goldstein AT, Marinoff SC, Christopher K, et al. Prevalence of vulvar lichen sclerosus in a general gynecology practice. J Reprod Med. 2005;50:477–480.
  • Günthert AR, Faber M, Knappe G, Hellriegel S, Emons G. Early onset vulvar lichen sclerosus in premenopausal women and oral contraceptives. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2008;137(1):56–60. doi:10.1016/j.ejogrb.2007.10.005
  • Nair PA. Vulvar Lichen Sclerosus et Atrophicus. J Midlife Health. 2017;8(2):55–62. doi:10.4103/jmh.JMH_13_17
  • Bleeker MC, Visser PJ, Overbeek LI, Beurden M, Berkhof J. Lichen sclerosus: incidence and risk of vulvar squamous cell carcinoma. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2016;25:1224–1230. doi:10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-16-0019
  • Sherman V, McPherson T, Baldo M, Salim A, Gao XH, Wojnarowska F. The high rate of familial lichen sclerosus suggests a genetic contribution: an observational cohort study. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2010;24(9):1031–1034. doi:10.1111/j.1468-3083.2010.03572.x
  • Doulaveri G, Armira K, Kouris A, Karypidis D, Potouridou I. Genital vulvar lichen sclerosus in monozygotic twin women: a case report and review of the literature. Case Rep Dermatol. 2013;5:321–325. doi:10.1159/000356775
  • Lis-Święty A, Mierzwińska K, Wodok-Wieczorek K, Widuchowska M, Brzezińska-Wcisło L. Co-existence of lichen sclerosus and localized scleroderma in female monozygotic twins. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol. 2014;27:e133–136. doi:10.1016/j.jpag.2013.11.010
  • Marren P, Yell J, Charnock FM, Bunce M, Welsh K, Wojnarowska F. The association between lichen sclerosus and antigens of the HLA system. Br J Dermatol. 1995;132(2):197–203. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2133.1995.tb05013.x
  • Powell J, Wojnarowska F, Winsey S, Marren P, Welsh K. Lichen sclerosus premenarche: autoimmunity and immunogenetics. Br J Dermatol. 2000;142(3):481–484. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2133.2000.03360.x
  • Tran DA, Xiaohui T, Macri CJ, Goldstein AT, Fu SW. Lichen sclerosus: an autoimmunopathologenic and genomic enigma with emerging genetic and immune targets. Int J Biol Sci. 2019;15(7):1429–1439. doi:10.7150/ijbs.34613
  • Gao X-H, Barnardo MCMN, Winsey S, et al. The association between HLA DR, DQ antigens, and vulval lichen sclerosus in the UK: HLA DRB1*12 and its associated DRB1*12/DQB1*0301/04/09/010 haplotype confers susceptibility to vulval lichen sclerosus, and HLA DRB1*0301/04 and its associated DRB1*0301/04/DQB1*0201/02/03 haplotype protects from vulval lichen sclerosus. J Invest Dermatol. 2005;125:895–899. doi:10.1111/j.0022-202X.2005.23905.x
  • Meyrick Thomas RH, Ridley CM, McGibbon DH, et al. Lichen sclerosus et atrophicus and autoimmunity: a study of 350 women. Br J Dermatol. 1988;118:41–46. doi:10.1111/bjd.1988.118.issue-1
  • Krapf JM, Goldstein AT. Vulvar lichen sclerosus. The Vulva. 2017;27.
  • Kreuter A, Kryvosheyeva Y, Terras S, et al. Association of autoimmune diseases with lichen sclerosus in 532 male and female patients. Acta Derm Venereol. 2013;93:238–241. doi:10.2340/00015555-1512
  • Cooper SM, Ali I, Baldo M, Wojnarowska F. The association of lichen sclerosus and erosive lichen planus of the vulva with autoimmune disease: a case-control study. Arch Dermatol. 2008;144(11):1432–1435. doi:10.1001/archderm.144.11.1432
  • Kirtschig G, Becker K, Günthert A, et al. Evidence‐based (S3) Guideline on (anogenital) Lichen sclerosus. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2015;29(10):e1–e43.
  • Brodrick B, Belkin ZR, Goldstein AT. Influence of treatments on prognosis for vulvar lichen sclerosus: facts and controversies. Clin Dermatol. 2013;31(6):780–786. doi:10.1016/j.clindermatol.2013.05.017
  • Terlou A, Santegoets LAM, van der Meijden WI, et al. An autoimmune phenotype in vulvar lichen sclerosus and lichen planus: a Th1 response and high levels of MicroRNA-155. J Invest Dermatol. 2012;132:658–666. doi:10.1038/jid.2011.369
  • Szabo SJ, Sullivan BM, Peng SL, Glimcher LH. Molecular mechanisms regulating Th1 immune responses. Annu Rev Immunol. 2003;21:713–758. doi:10.1146/annurev.immunol.21.120601.140942
  • Ren L, Zhao Y, Huo X, Wu X. MiR-155-5p promotes fibroblast cell proliferation and inhibits FOXO signaling pathway in vulvar lichen sclerosis by targeting FOXO3 and CDKN1B. Gene. 2018;653:43–50. doi:10.1016/j.gene.2018.01.049
  • Chan I. The role of extracellular matrix protein 1 in human skin. Clin Exp Dermatol. 2004;29:52–56. doi:10.1111/ced.2004.29.issue-1
  • Oyama N, Chan I, Neill SM, et al. Autoantibodies to extracellular matrix protein 1 in lichen sclerosus. The Lancet. 2003;362(9378):118–123. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(03)13863-9
  • Godoy CAP, Teodoro WR, Velosa APP, et al. Unusual remodeling of the hyalinization band in vulval lichen sclerosus by type V collagen and ECM 1 protein. Clinics. 2015;70:356–362. doi:10.6061/clinics
  • Zhao Y, Zhao S, Li H, Qin X, Wu X. Expression of galectin-7 in vulvar lichen sclerosus and its effect on dermal fibroblasts. Oncol Lett. 2018;16:2559–2564. doi:10.3892/ol.2018.8897
  • Soufir N, Queille S, Liboutet M, et al. Inactivation of the CDKN2A and the p53 tumour suppressor genes in external genital carcinomas and their precursors. Br J Dermatol. 2007;156:448–453. doi:10.1111/bjd.2007.156.issue-3
  • Goldstein AT Biomarkers of lichen sclerosus NCT03561428. Clinicaltrials.gov. June 2019. Available from: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03561428. Accessed January 3, 2020.
  • Dalziel KL. Effect of lichen sclerosus on sexual function and parturition. J Reprod Med. 1995;40(5):351–354.
  • Gagne H, Dalton V, Haefner H, et al. Vulvar pain and sexual function in patients with lichen sclerosus. J Reprod Med. 2007;52:121–122.
  • Van de Nieuwenhof H, Meeuwis K, Nieboer T, et al. The effect of vulvar lichen sclerosus on quality of life and sexual functioning. J Psychosom Obstet Gynaecol. 2010;31(4):279–284. doi:10.3109/0167482X.2010.507890
  • Burrows L, Creasey A, Goldstein A. The treatment of vulvar lichen sclerosus and female sexual dysfunction. J Sex Med. 2011;8(1):219–222. doi:10.1111/j.1743-6109.2010.02077.x
  • Hodges KR, Wiener CE, Vyas AS, Turrentine MA. The female genital self-image scale in adult women with vulvar lichen sclerosus. J Low Genit Tract Dis. 2019;23(3):210–213. doi:10.1097/LGT.0000000000000481
  • Zendell K, Edwards L. Lichen sclerosus with vaginal involvement: report of 2 cases and review of the literature. JAMA Dermatol. 2013;149(10):1199–1202. doi:10.1001/jamadermatol.2013.4885
  • Longinotti M, Schieffer YM, Kaufman RH. Lichen sclerosus involving the vagina. Obstet Gynecol. 2005;106(5):1217–1219. doi:10.1097/01.AOG.0000161058.02449.e8
  • Ueda Y, Enomoto T, Kimura T, et al. Two distinct pathways to development of squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva. J Skin Cancer. 2011;2011:1–7. doi:10.1155/2011/951250
  • Bornstein J, Bogliatto F, Haefner HK, et al., ISSVD Terminology Committee. The 2015 International Society for the Study of Vulvovaginal Disease (ISSVD) terminology of vulvar squamous intraepithelial lesions. Obstet Gynecol. 2016;127(2):264–268. doi:10.1097/AOG.0000000000001285
  • Vilmer C, Cavelier-Balloy B, Nogues C, Trassard M, Le Doussal V. Analysis of alterations adjacent to invasive vulvar carcinoma and their relationship with the associated carcinoma: a study of 67 cases. Eur J Gynaecol Oncol. 1997;19(1):25–31.
  • Bornstein J, Heifetz S, Kellner Y, Stolar Z, Abramovici H. Clobetasol dipropionate 0.05% versus testosterone propionate 2% topical application for severe vulvar lichen sclerosus. Am J Obstet Gyn. 1998;178(1):80–84. doi:10.1016/S0002-9378(98)70631-3
  • Renaud-Vilmer C, Cavelier-Balloy B, Porcher R, et al. Vulvar lichen sclerosus: effect of long-term topical application of a potent steroid on the course of the disease. Arch Dermatol. 2004;140:709–712. doi:10.1001/archderm.140.6.709
  • Bradford J, Fischer G. Long-term management of vulvar lichen sclerosus in adult women. Aust N Zeal J Obstet Gynaecol. 2010;50(2):148–152. doi:10.1111/j.1479-828X.2010.01142.x
  • Lee A, Bradford J, Fischer G. Long-term management of adult vulvar lichen sclerosus: a prospective cohort study of 507 women. JAMA Dermatol. 2015;151(10):1061–1067. doi:10.1001/jamadermatol.2015.0643
  • Neill S, Lewis F, Tatnall F, et al. British association of dermatologists’ guidelines for the management of lichen sclerosus 2010. Br J Dermatol. 2010;163:672–682. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2133.2010.09997.x
  • Lewis FM, Tatnall FM, Velangi SS, et al. British association of dermatologists guidelines for the management of lichen sclerosus 2018. Br J Dermatol. 2018;178:823–824.
  • McCarthy S, MacEoin N, O’Driscoll M, O’Connor R, Heffron CC, Murphy M. Should we always biopsy in clinically evident lichen sclerosus? J Low Genit Tract Dis. 2019;23(2):182–183. doi:10.1097/LGT.0000000000000457
  • Niamh L, Naveen S, Hazel B. Diagnosis of vulval inflammatory dermatoses: a pathological study with clinical correlation. Int J Gynecol Pathol. 2009;28:554–558. doi:10.1097/PGP.0b013e3181a9fb0d
  • Regauer S, Liegl B, Reich O. Early vulvar lichen sclerosus: a histopathological challenge. Histopathology. 2005;47:340–347. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2559.2005.02209.x
  • Murphy R. Lichen sclerosus. Dermatol Clin. 2010;28:707–715. doi:10.1016/j.det.2010.07.006
  • Akel R, Fuller C. Updates in lichen sclerosis: British Association of Dermatologists guidelines for the management of lichen sclerosus 2018. Br J Dermatol. 2018;178(4):823–824. doi:10.1111/bjd.16445
  • Funaro D, Lovett A, Leroux N, et al. A double- blind, randomized prospective study evaluating topical clobetasol propionate 0.05% versus topical tacrolimus 0.1% in patients with vulvar lichen sclerosus. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2014;71:84–91. doi:10.1016/j.jaad.2014.02.019
  • Ayhan A, Guven S, Guvendag Guven ES, Sakinci M, Gultekin M, Kucukali T. Topical testosterone versus clobetasol for vulvar lichen sclerosus. Int J Gynecol Obstet. 2007;96(2):117–121. doi:10.1016/j.ijgo.2006.09.018
  • Terras S, Gambichler T, Moritz RK, et al. UV-A1 phototherapy vs clobetasol propionate, 0.05%, in the treatment of vulvar lichen sclerosus: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Dermatol. 2014;150:621–627. doi:10.1001/jamadermatol.2013.7733
  • Virgili A, Gorghi A, Toni G, Minghetti S, Corazza M. First randomized trial on clobetasol propionate and mometasone furoate in the treatment of vulvar lichen sclerosus: results of efficacy and tolerability. Br J Dermatol. 2014;171(2):388–396. doi:10.1111/bjd.12910
  • Selk A. A survey of experts regarding the treatment of adult vulvar lichen sclerosus. J Low Genit Tract Dis. 2015;19(3):244–247. doi:10.1097/LGT.0000000000000106
  • Andreassi M, Bilenchi R. Topical pimecrolimus in the treatment of genital lichen sclerosus. Expert Rev Derm. 2013;8(5):443–450. doi:10.1586/17469872.2013.835923
  • Goldstein A, Creasey A, Pfau R, et al. A double blind, randomized controlled trial of clobetasol versus pimecrolimus in patients with vulvar lichen sclerosus. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2011;64(6):e99–e104. doi:10.1016/j.jaad.2010.06.011
  • Lacci KM, Dardik A. Platelet-rich plasma: support for its use in wound healing. Yale J Biol Med. 2010;83(1):1.
  • Sarvajnamurthy S, Suryanarayan S, Budamankuntala L, et al. Autologous platelet rich plasma in chronic venous ulcers: study of 17 cases. J Cutan Aesthet Surg. 2013;6:97–99. doi:10.4103/0974-2077.112671
  • Yotsu RR, Hagiwara S, Okochi H, et al. Case series of patients with chronic foot ulcers treated with autologous platelet-rich plasma. J Dermatol. 2015;42:288–295. doi:10.1111/1346-8138.12777
  • Wesner M, Defreitas T, Bredy H, et al. A pilot study evaluating the effectiveness of platelet-rich plasma therapy for treating degenerative tendinopathies: a randomized control trial with synchronous observational cohort. PLoS ONE. 2016;11:e0147842. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0147842
  • Wu PI-K, Diaz R, Borg-Stein J. Platelet-rich plasma. Phys Med Rehabil Clin N Am. 2016;27(4):825–853. doi:10.1016/j.pmr.2016.06.002
  • Goldstein AT, King M, Runels C, Gloth M, Pfau R. Intradermal injection of autologous platelet-rich plasma for the treatment of vulvar lichen sclerosus. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2017;76(1):158–160. doi:10.1016/j.jaad.2016.07.037
  • Kim SH, Park ES, Kim TH. Rejuvenation using platelet-rich plasma and lipofilling for vaginal atrophy and lichen sclerosus. J Menopausal Med. 2017;23(1):63–68. doi:10.6118/jmm.2017.23.1.63
  • Franic D, Iternicka Z, Franic-Ivanisevic M. Platelet-rich plasma (PRP) for the treatment of vulvar lichen sclerosus in premenopausal women: a case report. Case Rep Women’s Health. 2018;16:e00062. doi:10.1016/j.crwh.2018.e00062
  • Tedesco M, Pranteda G, Chichierchia G, et al. The use of PRP (platelet-rich plasma) in patients affected by genital lichen sclerosus: clinical analysis and results. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2019;33(2):e58–e59. doi:10.1111/jdv.2019.33.issue-2
  • Casabona F, Priano V, Vallerino V, et al. New surgical approach to lichen sclerosus of the vulva: the role of adipose-derived mesenchymal cells and platelet-rich plasma in tissue regeneration. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2010;126:210e–211e. doi:10.1097/PRS.0b013e3181ea9386
  • Goldstein AT, Mitchell L, Govind V, Heller D. A randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial of autologous platelet-rich plasma intradermal injections for the treatment of vulvar lichen sclerosus. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2019;80(6):1788–1789. doi:10.1016/j.jaad.2018.12.060
  • Ozog DM, Rkein AM, Fabi SG, et al. Photodynamic therapy: a clinical consensus guide. Dermatol Surg. 2016;42(7):804–827.
  • Prodromidou A, Chatziioannou E, Daskalakis G, Stergios K, Pergialiotis V. Photodynamic therapy for vulvar lichen sclerosus—a systematic review. J Low Genit Tract Dis. 2018;22(1):58–65. doi:10.1097/LGT.0000000000000362
  • Ruan L, Xie Z, Wang H, et al. High-intensity focused ultrasound treatment for non-neoplastic epithelial disorders of the vulva. Int J Gyn Obstet. 2010;109(2):167–70.\\. doi:10.1016/j.ijgo.2009.12.014
  • Sun X, Xue M, Deng X, Wan Y. Clinical factors analysis of curative effect of focused ultrasound treatment for non neoplastic epithelial disorders of the vulva. J Cent Sout Univ. 2010;35(9):933–939.
  • Ye M, Deng X, Mao S, Xue M. High intensity focused ultrasound treatment for non-neoplastic epithelial disorders of the vulva: factors affecting effectiveness and recurrence. Int J Hyperthermia. 2015;31(7):771–776. doi:10.3109/02656736.2015.1053101
  • Zhou W, Zhu L, Zhou H, et al. The efficacy of high-intensity, focused ultrasound treatment for non-neoplastic epithelial disorders of the vulva. Cell Mol Biol (Noisy-Le-Grand). 2016;62(4):111–115.
  • Lee A, Lim A, Fischer G. Fractional carbon dioxide laser in recalcitrant vulval lichen sclerosus. Australas J Dermatol. 2016;57(1):39–43. doi:10.1111/ajd.12305.
  • Baggish MS. Fractional CO2 laser treatment for vaginal atrophy and vulvar lichen sclerosus. J Gynecol Surg. 2016;32(6):309–317. doi:10.1089/gyn.2016.0099
  • Center for Vulvovaginal Disorders. MonaLisa touch laser for the treatment of vulvar lichen sclerosus NCT03665584. Clinicaltrials.gov [Internet]. November 2018. Available from: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03665584?cond=lichen+sclerosus&rank=2. Accessed January 3, 2020.
  • Medstar Health Research Institute. Clobetasol proprionate versus fractionated carbon dioxide laser for the treatment of lichen sclerosus (CuRLS) NCT02573883. Clinicaltrials.gov [Internet]. August 2019. Available from: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02573883. Accessed January 3, 2020.
  • Hobson JG, Ibrahim SF, Mercurio MG. Recalcitrant vulvar lichen sclerosus treated with erbium YAG laser. JAMA Dermatol. 2019;155(2):254–256. doi:10.1001/jamadermatol.2018.4461
  • Goldstein I. Dorsal slit surgery for clitoral phimosis. Sex Med. 2008;5(11):2485–2488. doi:10.1111/j.1743-6109.2008.01019.x
  • Goldstein A. Perineoplasty and vaginal advancement flap for vulvar granuloma fissuratum. J Sex Med. 2011;8(11):2984–2987. doi:10.1111/j.1743-6109.2011.02528.x
  • Kennedy CM, Dewdney S, Galask RP. Vulvar granuloma fissuratum: a description of fissuring of the posterior fourchette and the repair. Obstet Gynecol. 2005;105(5):1018–1023. doi:10.1097/01.AOG.0000158863.70819.53
  • King M, Rubin R, Goldstein AT. Current uses of surgery in the treatment of genital pain. Current Sexual Health Rep. 2014;6(4):252–258. doi:10.1007/s11930-014-0032-8
  • Goldstein AT, Burrows LJ. Surgical treatment of clitoral phimosis caused by lichen sclerosus. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2007;196(2):126.e1–4. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2006.08.023
  • Flynn A, King M, Rieff M, Krapf J, Goldstein AT. Patient satisfaction of surgical treatment of clitoral phimosis and labial adhesions caused by lichen sclerosus. Sexual Med. 2015;3(4):251. doi:10.1002/sm2.90
  • Rouzier R, Haddad B, Deyrolle C, et al. Perineoplasty for the treatment of introital stenosis related to vulvar lichen sclerosus. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2002;186:49–52. doi:10.1067/mob.2002.119186