Helminth Induced Immunoregulation and Novel Therapeutic Avenue of Allergy

References

• van Riet E, Hartgers FC, Yazdanbakhsh M. Chronic helminth infections induce immunomodulation: consequences and mechanisms. Immunobiology. 2007;212(6):475–490. doi:10.1016/j.imbio.2007.03.00917544832
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Silva NR, Brooker S, Hotez PJ, et al. Soil-transmitted helminth infections: updating the global picture. Trends Parasitol. 2003;19(12):547–551. doi:10.1016/j.pt.2003.10.00214642761
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maizels RM. Parasitic helminth infections and the control of human allergic and autoimmune disorders. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2016;22(6):481–486. doi:10.1016/j.cmi.2016.04.02427172808
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chico ME, Vaca MG, Rodriguez A, et al. Soil‐transmitted helminth parasites and allergy: observations from Ecuador. Parasite Immunol. 2019;41(6):e12590. doi:10.1111/pim.1259030229947
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramsey N, DiNardo A, Lupinek C, et al. Helminth infection and allergic sensitization in eswati children. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2018;121(5):S57. doi:10.1016/j.anai.2018.09.185
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maizels RM. Infections and allergy—helminths, hygiene and host immune regulation. Curr Opin Immunol. 2005;17(6):656–661. doi:10.1016/j.coi.2005.09.00116202576
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buck JC, De Leo GA, Sokolow SH. Concomitant immunity and worm senescence may drive schistosomiasis epidemiological patterns: an eco-evolutionary perspective. Front Immunol. 2020;11:160. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2020.0016032161583
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patel SP, Järvelin M-R, Little MP. Systematic review of worldwide variations of the prevalence of wheezing symptoms in children. Environ Health. 2008;7(1):57. doi:10.1186/1476-069X-7-5719000318
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bashir MEH, Andersen P, Fuss IJ, et al. An enteric helminth infection protects against an allergic response to dietary antigen. J Immunol. 2002;169(6):3284–3292. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.169.6.328412218148
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flohr C, Quinnell R, Britton J. Do helminth parasites protect against atopy and allergic disease? Clin Exp Allergy. 2009;39(1):20–32. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2222.2008.03134.x19128351
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stewart D, Nichol A. Inflammation, immunity and allergy. Anaesth Intensive Care Med. 2018;19(10):534–539. doi:10.1016/j.mpaic.2018.08.011
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cruz AA, Cooper PJ, Figueiredo CA, et al. Global issues in allergy and immunology: parasitic infections and allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2017;140(5):1217–1228. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2017.09.00529108604
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allen JE, Maizels RM. Diversity and dialogue in immunity to helminths. Nat Rev Immunol. 2011;11(6):375. doi:10.1038/nri299221610741
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fitzsimmons CM, Falcone FH, Dunne DW. Helminth allergens, parasite-specific IgE, and its protective role in human immunity. Front Immunol. 2014;5:61. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2014.0006124592267
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooper PJ. Interactions between helminth parasites and allergy. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol. 2009;9(1):29. doi:10.1097/ACI.0b013e32831f44a619106698
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Varricchi G, Harker J, Borriello F, et al. T follicular helper (Tfh) cells in normal immune responses and in allergic disorders. Allergy. 2016;71(8):1086–1094. doi:10.1111/all.1287826970097
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• King C, Tangye SG, Mackay CR. T follicular helper (TFH) cells in normal and dysregulated immune responses. Annu Rev Immunol. 2008;26(1):741–766. doi:10.1146/annurev.immunol.26.021607.09034418173374
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lund S, Walford H, Doherty T. Type 2 innate lymphoid cells in allergic disease. Curr Immunol Rev. 2013;9(4):214–221. doi:10.2174/157339551066614030423591624876829
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Scanlon ST, McKenzie AN. Type 2 innate lymphoid cells: new players in asthma and allergy. Curr Opin Immunol. 2012;24(6):707–712. doi:10.1016/j.coi.2012.08.00922985480
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Licona-Limón P, Kim LK, Palm NW, et al. Th 2, allergy and group 2 innate lymphoid cells. Nat Immunol. 2013;14(6):536–542. doi:10.1038/ni.261723685824
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johansson S, Hourihane JB, Bousquet J, et al. A revised nomenclature for allergy: an EAACI position statement from the EAACI nomenclature task force. Allergy. 2001;56(9):813–824. doi:10.1034/j.1398-9995.2001.t01-1-00001.x11551246
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhu N, Gong Y, Chen X, et al. Association between the polymorphisms of interleukin-4, the interleukin-4 receptor gene and asthma. Chin Med J. 2013.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hagel I, Cabrera M, Hurtado M, et al. Infection by ascaris lumbricoides and bronchial hyper reactivity: an outstanding association in Venezuelan school children from endemic areas. Acta Trop. 2007;103(3):231–241. doi:10.1016/j.actatropica.2007.06.01017698018
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stein M, Greenberg Z, Boaz M, et al. The role of helminth infection and environment in the development of allergy: a prospective study of newly-arrived Ethiopian immigrants in Israel. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2016;10(1):e0004208. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.000420826752538
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stein M, Greenberg Z, Boaz M, Handzel ZT, Meshesha MK, Bentwich Z. The role of helminth infection and environment in the development of allergy: a prospective study of newly-arrived Ethiopian immigrants in Israel. PLoS neglected tropical diseases 2016 Jan 11;10(1):e0004208.
   Google Scholar
• Dagoye D, Bekele Z, Woldemichael K, et al. Wheezing, allergy, and parasite infection in children in urban and rural Ethiopia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2003;167(10):1369–1373. doi:10.1164/rccm.200210-1204OC12738598
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bloomfield S, Stanwell‐Smith R, Crevel R, et al. Too clean, or not too clean: the hygiene hypothesis and home hygiene. Clin Exp Allergy. 2006;36(4):402–425. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2222.2006.02463.x16630145
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parker W. Reconstituting the depleted biome to prevent immune disorders. Evol Med Rev. 2010.
   Google Scholar
• van den Biggelaar AH, Rodrigues LC, van Ree R, et al. Long-term treatment of intestinal helminths increases mite skin-test reactivity in Gabonese school children. J Infect Dis. 2004;189(5):892–900. doi:10.1086/38176714976607
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicolaou N, Siddique N, Custovic A. Allergic disease in urban and rural populations: increasing prevalence with increasing urbanization. Allergy. 2005;60(11):1357–1360. doi:10.1111/j.1398-9995.2005.00961.x16197466
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strachan DP. Family size, infection and atopy: the first decade of the’hygiene hypothesis’. Thorax. 2000;55(Suppl 1):S2. doi:10.1136/thorax.55.suppl_1.S210943631
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yazdanbakhsh M, Kremsner PG, Van Ree R. Allergy, parasites, and the hygiene hypothesis. Science. 2002;296(5567):490–494. doi:10.1126/science.296.5567.49011964470
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smits HH, Everts B, Hartgers FC, et al. Chronic helminth infections protect against allergic diseases by active regulatory processes. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep. 2010;10(1):3–12. doi:10.1007/s11882-009-0085-320425508
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halim TY, Steer CA, Mathä L, et al. Group 2 innate lymphoid cells are critical for the initiation of adaptive T helper 2 cell-mediated allergic lung inflammation. Immunity. 2014;40(3):425–435. doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2014.01.01124613091
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson MS, Cheever AW, White SD, et al. IL-10 blocks the development of resistance to re-infection with Schistosoma mansoni. PLoS Pathog. 2011;7(8):e1002171. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.100217121829367
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buonocore S, Ahern PP, Uhlig HH, et al. Innate lymphoid cells drive interleukin-23-dependent innate intestinal pathology. Nature. 2010;464(7293):1371. doi:10.1038/nature0894920393462
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fallon PG, Mangan NE. Suppression of T H 2-type allergic reactions by helminth infection. Nat Rev Immunol. 2007;7(3):220. doi:10.1038/nri203917318233
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Medeiros M Jr, Figueiredo JP, Almeida MC, et al. Schistosoma mansoni infection is associated with a reduced course of asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2003;111(5):947–951. doi:10.1067/mai.2003.138112743556
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Helmby H. Helminths and our immune system: friend or foe? Parasitol Int. 2009;58(2):121–127. doi:10.1016/j.parint.2009.02.00119223020
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Else K, Finkelman F, Maliszewski C, et al. Cytokine-mediated regulation of chronic intestinal helminth infection. J Exp Med. 1994;179(1):347–351. doi:10.1084/jem.179.1.3478270879
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Babu S, Nutman TB. Immune responses to helminth infection. Clin Immunol. 2019;437–447e431.
   Google Scholar
• Artis D, Grencis R. The intestinal epithelium: sensors to effectors in nematode infection. Mucosal Immunol. 2008;1(4):252–264. doi:10.1038/mi.2008.2119079187
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lambrecht BN, Hammad H. The airway epithelium in asthma. Nat Med. 2012;18(5):684. doi:10.1038/nm.273722561832
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• von Moltke J, Ji M, Liang H-E, et al. Tuft-cell-derived IL-25 regulates an intestinal ILC2–epithelial response circuit. Nature. 2016;529(7585):221–225. doi:10.1038/nature1616126675736
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fallon PG, Ballantyne SJ, Mangan NE, et al. Identification of an interleukin (IL)-25–dependent cell population that provides IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13 at the onset of helminth expulsion. J Exp Med. 2006;203(4):1105–1116. doi:10.1084/jem.2005161516606668
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neill DR, Wong SH, Bellosi A, et al. Nuocytes represent a new innate effector leukocyte that mediates type-2 immunity. Nature. 2010;464(7293):1367–1370. doi:10.1038/nature0890020200518
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lopetuso LR, Scaldaferri F, Pizarro TT. Emerging role of the interleukin (IL)-33/ST2 axis in gut mucosal wound healing and fibrosis. Fibrogenesis Tissue Repair. 2012;5(1):18. doi:10.1186/1755-1536-5-1823062310
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Saenz SA, Taylor BC, Artis D. Welcome to the neighborhood: epithelial cell‐derived cytokines license innate and adaptive immune responses at mucosal sites. Immunol Rev. 2008;226(1):172–190. doi:10.1111/j.1600-065X.2008.00713.x19161424
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramalingam TR, Pesce JT, Mentink-Kane MM, et al. Regulation of helminth-induced Th2 responses by thymic stromal lymphopoietin. J Immunol. 2009;182(10):6452–6459. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.090018119414799
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saenz SA, Siracusa MC, Perrigoue JG, et al. IL25 elicits a multipotent progenitor cell population that promotes TH 2 cytokine responses. Nature. 2010;464(7293):1362–1366.20200520
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Price AE, Liang H-E, Sullivan BM, et al. Systemically dispersed innate IL-13–expressing cells in type 2 immunity. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2010;107(25):11489–11494. doi:10.1073/pnas.100398810720534524
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barlow JL, McKenzie AN. Nuocytes: expanding the innate cell repertoire in type‐2 immunity. J Leukoc Biol. 2011;90(5):867–874. doi:10.1189/jlb.031116021712394
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gronke K, Diefenbach A. Tuft cell-derived IL-25 activates and maintains ILC2. Immunol Cell Biol. 2016;94(3):221. doi:10.1038/icb.2016.1026975341
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finkelman FD, Shea-Donohue T, Goldhill J, et al. Cytokine regulation of host defense against parasitic gastrointestinal nematodes: lessons from studies with rodent models. Annu Rev Immunol. 1997;15(1):505–533. doi:10.1146/annurev.immunol.15.1.5059143698
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mentink-Kane MM, Cheever AW, Thompson RW, et al. IL-13 receptor α 2 down-modulates granulomatous inflammation and prolongs host survival in schistosomiasis. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2004;101(2):586–590. doi:10.1073/pnas.030506410114699044
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Butterworth A, Hagan P. Immunity in human schistosomiasis. Parasitol Today. 1987;3(1):11–16. doi:10.1016/0169-4758(87)90091-315462862
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hoffmann KF, Wynn TA, Dunne DW. Cytokine-mediated host responses during schistosome infections; walking the fine line between immunological control and immunopathology. Adv Parasitol. 2002;52:265–307.12521263
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maizels RM, McSorley HJ. Regulation of the host immune system by helminth parasites. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2016;138(3):666–675. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2016.07.00727476889
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akdis CA, Blaser K. Mechanisms of interleukin‐10‐mediated immune suppression. Immunology. 2001;103(2):131–136. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2567.2001.01235.x11412299
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maizels RM, McSorley HJ, Smyth DJ. Helminths in the hygiene hypothesis: sooner or later? Clin Exp Immunol. 2014;177(1):38–46. doi:10.1111/cei.1235324749722
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zakeri A, Hansen EP, Andersen SD, et al. Immunomodulation by helminths: intracellular pathways and extracellular vesicles. Front Immunol. 2018;9:2349.30369927
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weinstock JV, Elliott DE. Helminth infections decrease host susceptibility to immune-mediated diseases. J Immunol. 2014;193(7):3239–3247. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.140092725240019
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van der Veeken J, Gonzalez AJ, Cho H, et al. Memory of inflammation in regulatory T cells. Cell. 2016;166(4):977–990. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2016.07.00627499023
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kitani A, Fuss I, Nakamura K, et al. Transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1–producing regulatory T cells induce Smad-mediated interleukin 10 secretion that facilitates coordinated immunoregulatory activity and amelioration of TGF-β1–mediated fibrosis. J Exp Med. 2003;198(8):1179–1188. doi:10.1084/jem.2003091714557415
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castellani M, Anogeianaki A, Felaco P, et al. IL-35, an anti-inflammatory cytokine which expands CD4+ CD25+ treg cells. J Biol Regul Homeost Agents. 2010.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt A, Oberle N, Krammer PH. Molecular mechanisms of treg-mediated T cell suppression. Front Immunol. 2012;3:51. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2012.0005122566933
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Satoguina JS, Weyand E, Larbi J, et al. T regulatory-1 cells induce IgG4 production by B cells: role of IL-10. J Immunol. 2005;174(8):4718–4726. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.174.8.471815814696
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meiler F, Klunker S, Zimmermann M, et al. Distinct regulation of IgE, IgG4 and IgA by T regulatory cells and toll‐like receptors. Allergy. 2008;63(11):1455–1463. doi:10.1111/j.1398-9995.2008.01774.x18925882
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erb KJ. Helminths, allergic disorders and IgE‐mediated immune responses: where do we stand? Eur J Immunol. 2007;37(5):1170–1173. doi:10.1002/eji.20073731417447233
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Totura AL, Whitmore A, Agnihothram S, et al. Toll-like receptor 3 signaling via TRIF contributes to a protective innate immune response to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection. MBio. 2015;6(3):e00638–00615. doi:10.1128/mBio.00638-1526015500
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Le Goffic R, Balloy V, Lagranderie M, et al. Detrimental contribution of the toll-like receptor (TLR) 3 to influenza A virus–induced acute pneumonia. PLoS Pathog. 2006;2(6):e53. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.002005316789835
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Takeda K, Akira S. TLR signaling pathways In: Seminars in Immunology. Elsevier; 2004:3–9.
   Google Scholar
• Loebrich S. The role of F-actin in modulating Clathrin-mediated endocytosis: lessons from neurons in health and neuropsychiatric disorder. Commun Integr Biol. 2014;7(3):e28740. doi:10.4161/cib.2874025053985
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• van der Kleij D, Latz E, Brouwers JF, et al. A novel host-parasite lipid cross-talk. J Biol Chem. 2002;277(50):48122–912359728
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang X, Zhou S, Chi Y, et al. CD4+ CD25+ Treg induction by an HSP60‐derived peptide SJMHE1 from Schistosoma japonicum is TLR2 dependent. Eur J Immunol. 2009;39(11):3052–3065. doi:10.1002/eji.20093933519882655
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zakeri A, Borji H, Haghparast A. Interaction between helminths and toll-like receptors: possibilities and potentials for asthma therapy. Int Rev Immunol. 2016;35(3):219–248. doi:10.3109/08830185.2015.109693627120222
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coltherd J, Rodgers D, Lawrie R, et al. The parasitic worm-derived immunomodulator, ES-62 and its drug-like small molecule analogues exhibit therapeutic potential in a model of chronic asthma. Sci Rep. 2016;6(1):19224. doi:10.1038/srep1922426763929
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Melendez AJ, Harnett MM, Pushparaj PN, et al. Inhibition of FcεRI-mediated mast cell responses by ES-62, a product of parasitic filarial nematodes. Nat Med. 2007;13(11):1375–1381. doi:10.1038/nm165417952092
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Al-Riyami L, Pineda MA, Rzepecka J, et al. Designing anti-inflammatory drugs from parasitic worms: a synthetic small molecule analogue of the Acanthocheilonema viteae product ES-62 prevents development of collagen-induced arthritis. J Med Chem. 2013;56(24):9982–10002. doi:10.1021/jm401251p24228757
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harnett W, Harnett MM, Leung BP, et al. The anti-inflammatory potential of the filarial nematode secreted product, ES-62. Curr Top Med Chem. 2004;4(5):553–559. doi:10.2174/156802604345121214965306
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smits HH, Hammad H, van Nimwegen M, et al. Protective effect of Schistosoma mansoni infection on allergic airway inflammation depends on the intensity and chronicity of infection. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2007;120(4):932–940. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2007.06.00917689595
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Satoguina J, Mempel M, Larbi J, et al. Antigen-specific T regulatory-1 cells are associated with immunosuppression in a chronic helminth infection (onchocerciasis). Microbes Infect. 2002;4(13):1291–1300. doi:10.1016/S1286-4579(02)00014-X12443893
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jackson JA, Friberg IM, Little S, et al. Review series on helminths, immune modulation and the hygiene hypothesis: immunity against helminths and immunological phenomena in modern human populations: coevolutionary legacies? Immunology. 2009;126(1):18–27. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2567.2008.03010.x19120495
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gordon S, Martinez FO. Alternative activation of macrophages: mechanism and functions. Immunity. 2010;32(5):593–604. doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2010.05.00720510870
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Popovic PJ, Zeh HJ III, Ochoa JB. Arginine and immunity. J Nutr. 2007;137(6):1681S–1686S.17513447
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Choi BS, Martinez‐Falero IC, Corset C, et al. Differential impact of l‐arginine deprivation on the activation and effector functions of T cells and macrophages. J Leukoc Biol. 2009;85(2):268–277. doi:10.1189/jlb.050831019008294
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lynch NR, Hagel IA, Palenque ME, et al. Relationship between helminthic infection and IgE response in atopic and nonatopic children in a tropical environment. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1998;101(2):217–221. doi:10.1016/S0091-6749(98)70386-09500755
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rieger A, Bar-Or A. B-cell-derived interleukin-10 in autoimmune disease: regulating the regulators. Nat Rev Immunol. 2008;8(6):486–487. doi:10.1038/nri2315-c118500232
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wördemann M, Junco Diaz R, Menocal Heredia L, et al. Association of Atopy, Allergic Rhinoconjunctivitis, Atopic Dermatitis and Intestinal Helminth Infections in Cuban Children. 2008.
   Google Scholar
• Janson PC, Winerdal ME, Marits P, et al. FOXP3 promoter demethylation reveals the committed treg population in humans. PLoS One. 2008;3(2):e1612. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.000161218286169
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooper P. Toxocara canis infection: an important and neglected environmental risk factor for asthma? This editorial discusses the findings of the paper in this issue. Clin Exp Allergy. 2008;38(4):551–553. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2222.2008.02934.x18241245
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hankin CS, Cox L, Lang D, et al. Allergy immunotherapy among medicaid-enrolled children with allergic rhinitis: patterns of care, resource use, and costs. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2008;121(1):227–232. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2007.10.02618206509
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pinart M, Albang R, Maier D, et al. Systematic review on the definition of allergic diseases in children: the MeDALL study. Int Arch Allergy Immunol. 2015;168(2):110–121. doi:10.1159/00044241426657241
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stiemsma LT, Reynolds LA, Turvey SE, et al. The hygiene hypothesis: current perspectives and future therapies. ImmunoTargets Ther. 2015;4:143. doi:10.2147/ITT.S6152827471720
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weinstock JV, Summers RW, Elliott DE. Role of helminths in regulating mucosal inflammation In: Springer Seminars in Immunopathology. Springer; 2005:249–271.
   Google Scholar
• Tan LD, Schaeffer B, Alismail A. Parasitic (helminthic) infection while on asthma biologic treatment: not everything is what it seems. J Asthma Allergy. 2019;12:415. doi:10.2147/JAA.S22340231849501
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khan AR, Fallon PG. Helminth therapies: translating the unknown unknowns to known knowns. Int J Parasitol. 2013;43(3–4):293–299. doi:10.1016/j.ijpara.2012.12.00223291459
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bager P, Arnved J, Rønborg S, et al. Trichuris suis ova therapy for allergic rhinitis: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2010;125(1):123–130e123. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2009.08.00619800680
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Navarro S, Pickering DA, Ferreira IB, et al. Hookworm recombinant protein promotes regulatory T cell responses that suppress experimental asthma. Sci Transl Med. 2016;8(362):362ra143–362ra143. doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.aaf8807
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khosravi M, Mirsamadi ES, Mirjalali H, et al. Isolation and functions of extracellular vesicles derived from parasites: the promise of a new era in immunotherapy, vaccination, and diagnosis. Int J Nanomedicine. 2020;15:2957. doi:10.2147/IJN.S25099332425527
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Everts B, Perona-Wright G, Smits HH, et al. Omega-1, a glycoprotein secreted by Schistosoma mansoni eggs, drives Th2 responses. Journal of Experimental Medicine. 2009;206(8):1673–1680.19635864
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bell KS, Al-Riyami L, Lumb FE, et al. The role of individual protein kinase C isoforms in mouse mast cell function and their targeting by the immunomodulatory parasitic worm product, ES-62. Immunol Lett. 2015;168(1):31–40. doi:10.1016/j.imlet.2015.09.00126343793
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang X, Wang J, Liang Y, et al. Schistosoma japonicum HSP60-derived peptide SJMHE1 suppresses delayed-type hypersensitivity in a murine model. Parasit Vectors. 2016;9(1):147.26971312
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Falcón CR, Masih D, Gatti G, et al. Fasciola hepatica kunitz type molecule decreases dendritic cell activation and their ability to induce inflammatory responses. PLoS One. 2014;9(12):e114505. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.011450525486609
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Croese J, O’neil J, Masson J, et al. A proof of concept study establishing necator americanus in Crohn’s patients and reservoir donors. Gut. 2006;55(1):136–137. doi:10.1136/gut.2005.07912916344586
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flohr C, Tuyen L, Quinnell R, et al. Reduced helminth burden increases allergen skin sensitization but not clinical allergy: a randomized, double‐blind, placebo‐controlled trial in Vietnam. Clin Exp Allergy. 2010;40(1):131–142.19758373
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar