Perioperative Care of the Pediatric Patient and an Algorithm for the Treatment of Intraoperative Bronchospasm

References

• Fanta CH. Asthma. N Engl J Med. 2009;360:1002–1014. doi:10.1056/NEJMra0804579
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woods BD, Sladen RN. Perioperative considerations for the patient with asthma and bronchospasm. Br J Anaesth. 2009;103(Suppl 1):i57–65. doi:10.1093/bja/aep271
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hoch HE, Houin PR, Stillwell PC. Asthma in children: a brief review for primary care providers. Pediatr Ann. 2019;48:e103–9. doi:10.3928/19382359-20190219-01
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akinbami LJ, Schoendorf KC. Trends in childhood asthma: prevalence, health care utilization, and mortality. Pediatrics. 2002;110:315–322. doi:10.1542/peds.110.2.315
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akinbami LJ, Simon AE, Rossen LM. Changing trends in asthma prevalence among children. Pediatrics. 2016;137:1–7. doi:10.1542/peds.2015-2354
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Radhakrishnan DK, Dell SD, Guttmann A, et al. Trends in the age of diagnosis of childhood asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2014;134:1057–1062. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2014.05.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martinati LC, Boner AL. Clinical diagnosis of wheezing in early childhood. Allergy. 1995;50:701–710. doi:10.1111/j.1398-9995.1995.tb01210.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balbani AP, Weber SA, Montovani JC. Update in obstructive sleep apnea syndrome in children. Rev Bras Otorrinolaringol. 2005;71:74–80. doi:10.1590/S0034-72992005000100013
   Google Scholar
• Levy ML, Fletcher M, Price DB, et al. International Primary Care Respiratory Group (IPCRG) Guidelines: diagnosis of respiratory diseases in primary care. Prim Care Respir J. 2006;15:20–34. doi:10.1016/j.pcrj.2005.10.004
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Castro-Rodríguez JA, Holberg CJ, Wright AL, Martinez FD. A clinical index to define risk of asthma in young children with recurrent wheezing. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000;162(4 Pt 1):1403–1406. doi:10.1164/ajrccm.162.4.9912111
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castro-Rodriguez JA. The asthma predictive index: early diagnosis of asthma. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol. 2011;11:157–161. doi:10.1097/ACI.0b013e3283464c4a
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gallucci M, Carbonara P, Pacilli AMG, Di Palmo E, Ricci G, Nava S. Use of symptoms scores, spirometry, and other pulmonary function testing for asthma monitoring. Front Pediatr. 2019;7:54. doi:10.3389/fped.2019.00054
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moeller A, Carlsen KH, Sly PD, et al. ERS task force monitoring asthma in children. Monitoring asthma in childhood: lung function, bronchial responsiveness and inflammation. Eur Respir Rev. 2015;24:204–215. doi:10.1183/16000617.00003914
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reddel HK, Taylor DR, Bateman ED, et al. An official American Thoracic Society/European Respiratory Society statement: asthma control and exacerbations: standardizing endpoints for clinical asthma trials and clinical practice. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2009;180:59–99. doi:10.1164/rccm.200801-060ST
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riiser A, Hovland V, Carlsen KH, Mowinckel P, Lødrup Carlsen KC. Does bronchial hyperresponsiveness in childhood predict active asthma in adolescence? Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2011;186:493–500. doi:10.1164/rccm.201112-2235OC
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohn L, Elias JA, Chupp GL. Asthma: mechanisms of disease persistence and progression. Annu. Rev Immunol. 2004;22:789–815. doi:10.1146/annurev.immunol.22.012703.104716
   Google Scholar
• Westhorpe RN, Ludbrook GL, Helps SC. Crisis management during anaesthesia: bronchospasm. Qual Saf Health Care. 2005;14:e7. doi:10.1136/qshc.2002.004457
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dewachter P, Mouton-Faivre C, Emala CW, Beloucif S, Riou B. Case scenario: bronchospasm during anesthetic induction. Anesthesiology. 2011;114:1200–1210. doi:10.1097/ALN.0b013e3182172cd3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin CS, Chang CC, Yeh CC, Chung CL, Chen TL, Liao CC. Postoperative adverse outcomes in patients with asthma: a nationwide population-based cohort study. Medicine. 2016;95:e2548. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000002548
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Desalu I, Adeyemo W, Akintimoye M, Adepoju A. Airway and respiratory complications in children undergoing cleft lip and palate repair. Ghana Med J. 2010;44:16–20. doi:10.4314/gmj.v44i1.68851
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dones F, Foresta G, Russotto V. Update on perioperative management of the child with asthma. Pediatr Rep. 2012;4:e19. doi:10.4081/pr.2012.e19
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Simsek E, Karaman Y, Gonullu M, Tekgul Z, Cakmak M. The effect of passive exposure to tobacco smoke on perioperative respiratory complications and the duration of recovery. Rev Bras Anestesiol. 2016;66:492–498. doi:10.1016/j.bjan.2015.03.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tait AR, Malviya S, Voepel-Lewis T, Munro HM, Seiwert M, Pandit UA. Risk factors for perioperative adverse respiratory events in children with upper respiratory tract infections. Anesthesiology. 2001;95:299–306. doi:10.1097/00000542-200108000-00008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lauer R, Vadi M, Mason L. Anaesthetic management of the child with co-existing pulmonary disease. Br J Anaesth. 2012;109(Suppl 1):i47–i59. doi:10.1093/bja/aes392
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tait AR, Malviya S. Anesthesia for the child with an upper respiratory tract infection: still a dilemma? Anesth Analg. 2005;100:59–65. doi:10.1213/01.ANE.0000139653.53618.91
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• El-Metainy S, Ghoneim T, Aridae E, Abdel Wahab M. Incidence of perioperative adverse events in obese children undergoing elective general surgery. Br J Anaesth. 2011;106:359–363. doi:10.1093/bja/aeq368
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen MM, Cameron CB. Should you cancel the operation when a child has an upper respiratory tract infection? Anesth Analg. 1991;72:282–288. doi:10.1213/00000539-199103000-00002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Azhar N. Pre-operative optimisation of lung function. Indian J Anaesth. 2015;59:550–556. doi:10.4103/0019-5049.165858
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Matsuse H, Shimoda T, Machida I, et al. Perioperative corticosteroids for intermittent and mild persistent asthma. Allergol Int. 2002;51:185–190. doi:10.1046/j.1440-1592.2002.00263.x
   Google Scholar
• Silvanus MT, Groeben H, Peters J. Corticosteroids and inhaled salbutamol in patients with reversible airway obstruction markedly decrease the incidence of bronchospasm after tracheal intubation. Anesthesiology. 2004;100:1052–1057. doi:10.1097/00000542-200405000-00004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Groeben H. Strategies in the patient with compromised respiratory function. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol. 2004;18:579–594. doi:10.1016/j.bpa.2004.05.013
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ramgolam A, Hall GL, Zhang G, Hegarty M, von Ungern-Sternberg BS. Inhalational versus intravenous induction of anesthesia in children with a high risk of perioperative respiratory adverse events: a randomized controlled trial. Anesthesiology. 2018;128:1065–1074. doi:10.1097/ALN.0000000000002152
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pizov R, Brown RH, Weiss YS, et al. Wheezing during induction of general anesthesia in patients with and without asthma. A randomized, blinded trial. Anesthesiology. 1995;82:1111–1116. doi:10.1097/00000542-199505000-00004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eames WO, Rooke GA, Wu RS, Bishop MJ. Comparison of the effects of etomidate, propofol, and thiopental on respiratory resistance after tracheal intubation. Anesthesiology. 1996;84:1307–1311. doi:10.1097/00000542-199606000-00005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown RH, Wagner EM. Mechanisms of bronchoprotection by anesthetic induction agents: propofol versus ketamine. Anesthesiology. 1999;90:822–828. doi:10.1097/00000542-199903000-00025
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baraka A, Harrison T, Kachachi T. Catecholamine levels after ketamine anesthesia in man. Anesth Analg. 1973;52:198–200. doi:10.1213/00000539-197303000-00012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yamakage M, Namiki A. Cellular mechanisms of airway smooth muscle relaxant effects of anesthetic agents. J Anesth. 2003;17:251–258. doi:10.1007/s00540-003-0194-4
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stucke AG, Stuth EA, Tonkovic-Capin V, et al. Effects of sevoflurane on excitatory neurotransmission to medullary expiratory neurons and on phrenic nerve activity in a decerebrate dog model. Anesthesiology. 2001;95:485–491. doi:10.1097/00000542-200108000-00034
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rooke GA, Choi JH, Bishop MJ. The effect of isoflurane, halothane, sevoflurane, and thiopental/nitrous oxide on respiratory system resistance after tracheal intubation. Anesthesiology. 1997;86:1294–1319. doi:10.1097/00000542-199706000-00010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goff MJ, Arain SR, Ficke DJ, Uhrich TD, Ebert TJ. Absence of bronchodilation during desflurane anesthesia: a comparison to sevoflurane and thiopental. Anesthesiology. 2000;93:404–408. doi:10.1097/00000542-200008000-00018
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klock PA Jr, Czeslick EG, Klafta JM, Ovassapian A, Moss J. The effect of sevoflurane and desflurane on upper airway reactivity. Anesthesiology. 2001;94:963–967. doi:10.1097/00000542-200106000-00008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lauder GR. Total intravenous anesthesia will supercede inhalational anesthesia in pediatric anesthetic practice. Paediatr Anaesth. 2015;25:52–64. doi:10.1111/pan.12553
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Royse CF, Liew DFL, Wright CE, et al. Persistent depression of contractility and vasodilation with propofol but not with sevoflurane or desflurane in rabbits. Anesthesiology. 2008;108:87–93. doi:10.1097/01.anes.0000296077.32685.26
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hohlrieder M, Tiefenthaler W, Klaus H, et al. Effect of total intravenous anaesthesia and balanced anaesthesia on the frequency of coughing during emergence from the anaesthesia. Br J Anaesth. 2007;99:587–591. doi:10.1093/bja/aem203
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oberer C, von Ungern-Sternberg BS, Frei FJ, et al. Respiratory reflex responses of the larynx differ between sevoflurane and propofol in pediatric patients. Anesthesiology. 2005;103:1142–1148. doi:10.1097/00000542-200512000-00007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Von Ungern-Sternberg BS, Boda K, Chambers NA, et al. Risk assessment for respiratory complications in paediatric anaesthesia: a prospective cohort study. Lancet. 2010;376:773–783. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61193-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tait AR, Pandit UA, Voepel-Lewis T, Munro HM, Malviya S. Use of the laryngeal mask airway in children with upper respiratory tract infections: a comparison with endotracheal intubation. Anesth Analg. 1998;86:706–711. doi:10.1213/00000539-199804000-00006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lundstrøm LH, Duez CHV, Nørskov AK, et al. Effects of avoidance or use of neuromuscular blocking agents on outcomes in tracheal intubation: a Cochrane systematic review. Br J Anaesth. 2018;120:1381–1393. doi:10.1016/j.bja.2017.11.106
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brenner B, Corbridge T, Kazzi A. Intubation and mechanical ventilation of the asthmatic patient in respiratory failure. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2009;124(2 Suppl):S19–S28. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2009.05.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilcox SR, Bittner EA, Elmer J, et al. Neuromuscular blocking agent administration for emergent tracheal intubation is associated with decreased prevalence of procedure-related complications. Crit Care Med. 2012;40:1808–1813. doi:10.1097/CCM.0b013e31824e0e67
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Basta SJ. Modulation of histamine release by neuromuscular-blocking drugs. Curr Opin Anesth. 1992;5:572–576. doi:10.1097/00001503-199208000-00021
   Google Scholar
• Rajchert DM, Pasquariello CA, Watcha MF, Schreiner MS. Rapacuronium and the risk of bronchospasm in pediatric patients. Anesth Analg. 2002;94:488–493. doi:10.1097/00000539-200203000-00003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jooste E, Klafter F, Hirshman CA, Emala CW. A mechanism for rapacuronium-induced bronchospasm: M2 muscarinic receptor antagonism. Anesthesiology. 2003;98:906–911. doi:10.1097/00000542-200304000-00017
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang CI, Fine GF, Jooste EH, Mutich R, Walczak SA, Motoyama EK. The effect of cisatracurium and rocuronium on lung function in anesthetized children. Anesth Analg. 2013;117(6):1393–1400. doi:10.1213/ANE.0b013e3182a6d191
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hazizaj A, Hatija A. Bronchospasm caused by neostigmine. Eur J Anaesthesiol. 2006;23:85–86. doi:10.1017/S0265021505241820
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tobias JD. Current evidence for the use of sugammadex in children. Paediatr Anaesth. 2017;27:118–125. doi:10.1111/pan.13050
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hepner DL, Castells MC. Anaphylaxis during the perioperative period. Anesth Analg. 2003;97:1381–1395. doi:10.1213/01.ANE.0000082993.84883.7D
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laxenaire M, Mertes P. Anaphylaxis during anaesthesia. Results of a two-year survey in France. Br J Anaesth. 2001;87:549–558. doi:10.1093/bja/87.4.549
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wakimoto M, Miller R, Kim SS, et al. Perioperative anaphylaxis in children: a report from the wake-up safe collaborative. Paediatr Anaesth. 2021;31(2):205–212. doi:10.1111/pan.14063
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harper NJN, Cook TM, Garcez T, et al. Anaesthesia, surgery, and life-threatening allergic reactions: management and outcomes in the 6th National Audit Project (NAP6). Br J Anaesth. 2018;121:172–188. doi:10.1016/j.bja.2018.04.015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harboe T, Guttormsen A, Irgens A, Dybendal T, Florvaag E. Anaphylaxis during anesthesia in Norway. Anesthesiology. 2005;102:897–903. doi:10.1097/00000542-200505000-00006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gurrieri C, Weingarten TN, Martin DP, et al. Allergic reactions during anesthesia at a large United States referral center. Anesth Analg. 2011;113:1202–1212. doi:10.1213/ANE.0b013e31822d45ac
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tait AR, Burke C, Voepel-Lewis T, Chiravuri D, Wagner D, Malviya S. Glycopyrrolate does not reduce the incidence of perioperative adverse events in children with upper respiratory tract infections. Anesth Analg. 2007;104(2):265–270. doi:10.1213/01.ane.0000243333.96141.40
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Groeben H, Peters J. Lidocaine exerts its effect on induced bronchospasm by mitigating reflexes, rather than by attenuation of smooth muscle contraction. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2007;51:359–364. doi:10.1111/j.1399-6576.2006.01205.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang HY, Togias A, Brown RH. The effects of systemic lidocaine on airway tone and pulmonary function in asthmatic subjects. Anesth Analg. 2007;104:1109–1115. doi:10.1213/01.ane.0000260638.57139.87
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patra P, Nayak D. Dexamethasone as prophylaxis! Is it effective in reducing postoperative extubation blues in paediatric age group? A retrospective review of 331 patients. Indian J Anaesth. 2018;2018:52305–52310.
   Google Scholar
• D’Mello A, Grischkan J, Tobias JD. Intraoperative endotracheal tube kinking: clinical findings and early diagnosis. Pediatr Anesth Crit Care J. 2022;10:17–21.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kao CC, Jain S, Guntupalli KK, Bandi V. Mechanical ventilation for asthma: a 10-year experience. J Asthma. 2008;45:552–556. doi:10.1080/02770900801999090
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alter HJ, Koepsell TD, Hilty WM. Intravenous magnesium as an adjuvant in acute bronchospasm: a meta-analysis. Ann Emerg Med. 2000;36:191–197. doi:10.1067/mem.2000.109170
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hemmingsen C, Nielsen PK, Odorico J. Ketamine in the treatment of bronchospasm during mechanical ventilation. Am J Emerg Med. 1994;12(4):417–420. doi:10.1016/0735-6757(94)90051-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marshall PS, Possick J, Chupp GL. Intensive care unit management of status asthmaticus. Clin Pulm Med. 2009;16:293–301. doi:10.1097/CPM.0b013e3181bdff38
   Google Scholar
• Dalabih A, Harris ZL, Bondi SA, Arnold DH. Contemporary aminophylline use for status asthmaticus in pediatric ICUs. Chest. 2012;141:1122–1123. doi:10.1378/chest.11-2873
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dalabih AR, Bondi SA, Harris ZL, Saville BR, Wang W, Arnold DH. Aminophylline infusion for status asthmaticus in the pediatric critical care unit setting is independently associated with increased length of stay and time for symptom improvement. Pulm Pharmacol Ther. 2014;27:57–61. doi:10.1016/j.pupt.2013.03.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitra A, Bassler D, Goodman K, Lasserson TJ, Ducharme FM. Intravenous aminophylline for acute severe asthma in children over two years receiving inhaled bronchodilators. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2005;2005:CD001276. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001276.pub2
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Veyckemans F. Tracheal extubation in children: planning, technique, and complications. Paediatr Anaesth. 2020;30:331–338. doi:10.1111/pan.13774
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shi M, Miao S, Gu T, Wang D, Zhang H, Liu J. Dexmedetomidine for the prevention of emergence delirium and postoperative behavioral changes in pediatric patients with sevoflurane anesthesia: a double-blind, randomized trial. Drug Des Devel Ther. 2019;13:897–905. doi:10.2147/DDDT.S196075
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shukry M, Clyde MC, Kalarickal PL, Ramadhyani U. Does dexmedetomidine prevent emergence delirium in children after sevoflurane-based general anesthesia? Paediatr Anaesth. 2005;15:1098–1104. doi:10.1111/j.1460-9592.2005.01660.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mikami M, Zhan Y, Kim B, et al. Dexmedetomidine’s inhibitory effects on acetylcholine release from cholinergic nerves in Guinea pig trachea: a mechanism that accounts for its clinical benefit during airway irritation. BMC Anesthesiol. 2017;17:52. doi:10.1186/s12871-017-0345-z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beers SL, Abramo TJ, Bracken A, Wiebe RA. Bilevel positive airway pressure in the treatment of status asthmaticus in pediatrics. Am J Emerg Med. 2007;25:6–9. doi:10.1016/j.ajem.2006.07.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silva Pde S, Barreto SS. Non-invasive ventilation in status asthmaticus in children: levels of evidence. Rev Bras Ter Intensiva. 2015;27:390–396.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar