Cervical cancer screening in Nepal: ethical considerations

References

• Sankaranarayanan R, Ferlay J. Worldwide burden of gynaecological cancer: the size of the problem. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 2006;20:207–225.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. Comprehensive cervical cancer prevention and control: a healthier future for girls and women. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization Press; 2013. Available from: http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/cancers/9789241505147/en/. Accessed December 5, 2014.
   Google Scholar
• Information Center on HPV and Cervical Cancer. Human papillomavirus and related cancers, fact sheet 2013. Available from: http://www.hpvcentre.net/statistics/reports/NPL_FS.pdf. Accessed April 25, 2014.
   Google Scholar
• Dabash R, Vajpayee J, Jacob M, et al. A strategic assessment of cervical cancer prevention and treatment services in 3 districts of Uttar Pradesh, India. Reprod Health. 2005;2:11.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jemal A, Bray F, Center M, Ferlay J, Ward E, Forman D. Global cancer statistics. CA Cancer J Clin. 2011;61:69–90.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pradhan P. Prevention of carcinoma cervix: role of Pap smear screening. Nepal Med Coll J. 2003;5:82–86.
   Google Scholar
• Sherpa AT. Time for an Organized Cervical Cancer Screening in Bharatpur, Nepal. Master’s thesis. Oslo, Norway: University of Oslo; 2007.
   Google Scholar
• Dixit S, Singh M. Cervical cancer in Nepali women. October 31, 2010. Available from: http://archives.myrepublica.com/portal/index.php?action=news_details&news_id=24761. Accessed December 5, 2014.
   Google Scholar
• Sherpa AT. Human papillomavirus infection in women with and without cervical cancer in Nepal. Cancer Causes Control. 2010;21:323–330.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shi JF, Canfell K, Lew JB, et al. Evaluation of primary HPV-DNA testing in relation to visual inspection methods for cervical cancer screening in rural China: an epidemiologic and cost-effectiveness modelling study. BMC Cancer. 2011;11:39.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dhaubhadel P, Vaidya A, Choudhary P. Early detection of precursors of cervical cancer with cervical cytology and visual inspection of cervix with acetic acid. JNMA J Nepal Med Assoc. 2008;47:71–76.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Satyal K. Cervical cancer screening behavior among Nepalese women. PhD dissertation. Fairfax, VA, USA: George Mason University; 2013. Available from: http://digilib.gmu.edu/jspui/bitstream/1920/8249/1/Satyal_gmu_0883E_10352.pdf. Accessed August 06, 2014.
   Google Scholar
• Khan S, Jha R, Pant P. Accuracy of cytology, visual inspection with acetic acid or lugol’s iodine in cervical cancer screening. N J Obstet Gynaecol. 2007;2:48–53.
   Google Scholar
• Prasai S. Human papilloma virus vaccination: should it be mandatory? JNMA J Nepal Med Assoc. 2008;47:167–171.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weller D. Ethical issues in cervical screening. Cytopathology. 2006;17 Suppl 1:4.
   Google Scholar
• Situ KC. Women’s autonomy and maternal health care utilization in Nepal. Master’s thesis. Tampere, Finland: University of Tampere; 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Gyenwali D, Khanal G, Paudel R, Archana A, Pariyar J, Onta S. Estimates of delays in diagnosis of cervical cancer in Nepal. BMC Womens Health. 2014;14:29.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilbert D. Human papilloma virus and cancer of the cervix: a challenge facing Nepal. Kathmandu Univ Med J. 2006;4:396–397.
   Google Scholar
• Family Health Division. National Guideline for Cervical Cancer Screening and Prevention in Nepal. Department of Health Services, Kathmandu: Government of Nepal; 2010.
   Google Scholar
• Roberts MJ, Reich MR. Ethical analysis in public health. Lancet. 2002;359:1055–1059.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ustun C, Ceber E. Ethical issues for cancer screenings. Five countries – four types of cancer. Prev Med. 2004;39:223–229.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Acharya S. Cancer in Nepal: the necessity of a multi-targeted approach, 2014. Available from: http://www.ghjournal.org/cancer-in-nepal-the-necessity-of-a-multi-targeted-approach/. Accessed October 12, 2014.
   Google Scholar
• Shrestha B. Informed consent: what it is all about. Kathmandu Univ Med J. 2005;3:205–207.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Acharya D, Bell JS, Simkhada P, van Teijlingen ER, Regmi PR. Women’s autonomy in household decision-making: a demographic study in Nepal. Reprod Health. 2010;7:15.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bradley J, Coffey P, Arrossi S, et al. Women’s perspectives on cervical screening and treatment in developing countries: experiences with new technologies and service delivery strategies. Women Health. 2006;43:103–121.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crockett R, Wilkinson TM, Marteau TM. Social patterning of screening uptake and the impact of facilitating informed choices: psychological and ethical analyses. Health Care Anal. 2008;16:17–30.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sapkota K. Knowledge, attitude and perceived barriers to cervical cancer screening among rural women in western Nepal. Washington, DC, USA: American Public Health Association; 2011. Available from: https://apha.confex.com/apha/139am/webprogram/Paper249942.html. Accessed October 15, 2014.
   Google Scholar
• Graham J, Mishra A. Global challenges of implementing human papillomavirus vaccines. Int J Equity Health. 2011;10:27.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paz-Soldan VA, Nussbaum L, Bayer AM, Cabrera L. Low knowledge of cervical cancer and cervical pap smears among women in Peru, and their ideas of how this could be improved. Int Q Community Health Educ. 2010;31:245–263.
   Google Scholar
• Bingham A, Bishop A, Coffey P, et al. Factors affecting utilization of cervical cancer prevention services in low-resource settings. Salud Publica Mex. 2003;45 Suppl 3:408–416.
   Google Scholar
• Ibbotson S. Cervical screening: RCN guidance for good practice. London, UK: Royal College of Nursing; 2013. Available from: http://www.rcn.org.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/78730/003105.pdf. Accessed October 21, 2014.
   Google Scholar
• Ghimire L, Cairns W, Smith R, van Teijlingen ER. Barriers to utilization of sexual health services by female sex workers in Nepal. BMC Health Serv Res. 2011;11:79.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chigbu C, Aniebue U. Why Southeastern Nigerian women who are aware of cervical cancer screening do not go for cervical cancer screening. Int J Gynecol Cancer. 2011;21:1282–1286.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Limpaphayom K; Royal Thai College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists/JHPIEGO Corporation Cervical Cancer Prevention Group. Safety, acceptability, and feasibility of a single-visit approach to cervical-cancer prevention in rural Thailand: a demonstration project. Lancet. 2003;361:814–820.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Denny L, Quinn M, Sankaranarayanan R. Chapter 8: Screening for cervical cancer in developing countries. Vaccine. 2006;24 Suppl 3: S3/71–77.
   Google Scholar
• Shastri SS, Indraneel M, Gauravi M, et al. Effect of VIA screening by primary health workers: randomized controlled study in Mumbai, India. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2014;106(3).
   Google Scholar
• Sankaranarayanan R, Esmy PO, Rajkumar R, et al. Effect of visual screening on cervical cancer incidence and mortality in Tamil Nadu, India: a cluster-randomised trial. Lancet. 2007;370:398–406.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moody HR. The soul of bioethics. HealthCare Chaplaincy. 2011. Available from: http://www.healthcarechaplaincy.org/soul-of-bioethics/142-soul-of-bioethics.html. Accessed January 1, 2014.
   Google Scholar
• Goel A, Gandhi G, Batra S, Bhambhani S, Zutshi V, Sachdeva P. Visual inspection of the cervix with acetic acid for cervical intraepithelial lesions. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2005;88:25–30.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petticrew M, Sowden AJ, Lister-Sharp D, Wright K. False-negative results in screening programmes: systematic review of impact and implications. Health Technol. 2000;4:1–120.
   Google Scholar
• Consul S, Agrawal A, Sharma H, Bansal A, Gutch M, Jain N. Comparative study of effectiveness of Pap smear versus visual inspection with acetic acid and visual inspection with Lugol’s iodine for mass screening of premalignant and malignant lesion of cervix. Indian J Med Paediatr Oncol. 2012;33:161–165.
   Google Scholar
• Were E, Nyaberi Z, Buziba N. Perceptions of risk and barriers to cervical cancer screening at Moi Teaching and Referral Hospital (MTRH), Eldoret, Kenya. Afr Health Sci. 2011;11:58–64.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goffman E. Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity. New York, NY, USA: Simon and Schuster; 1963.
   Google Scholar
• Rawls J. Theory of Justice. Cambridge, MA, USA: Harvard University Press; 1971.
   Google Scholar
• Tsu VD, Jeronimo J, Anderson BO. Why the time is right to tackle breast and cervical cancer in low-resource settings. Bull World Health Organ. 2013;91:683–690.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shrestha S, Saha R, Tripathi N. Knowledge, attitude and practice regarding cervical cancer screening amongst women visiting tertiary centre in Kathmandu, Nepal, 2013. Available from: http://www.njmsmanipal.com/downloads/NJMS_Vol2_No2_OA2.pdf. Accessed December 5, 2014.
   Google Scholar
• Nygård JF, Nygård M, Share GB, Thoresen SO. Pap smear screening in women under 30 in the Norwegian coordinated cervical cancer screening program, with a comparison of immediate biopsy vs Pap smear triage of moderate dysplasia. Acta Cytol. 2000;50:295–302.
   Google Scholar