Maternal nutrition and fetal growth: the role of iron status and intake during pregnancy

References

• McIntire DD, Bloom SL, Casey BM, Leveno KJ. Birth weight in relation to morbidity and mortality among newborn infants. N Engl J Med. 1999;340(16):1234–1238.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richards M, Hardy R, Kuh D, Wadsworth ME. Birthweight, postnatal growth and cognitive function in a national UK birth cohort. Int J Epidemiol. 2002;31(2):342–348.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barker DJ, Eriksson JG, Forsen T, Osmond C. Fetal origins of adult disease: strength of effects and biological basis. Int J Epidemiol. 2002;31(6):1235–1239.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barker DJ. The fetal origins of coronary heart disease. Acta Paediatr Suppl. 1997;422:78–82.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Barker DJ. Adult consequences of fetal growth restriction. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 2006;49(2):270–283.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eriksson JG. Early growth, and coronary heart disease and type 2 diabetes: experiences from the Helsinki Birth Cohort Studies. Int J Obes (Lond). 2006;30 Suppl 4:S18–S22.
   Google Scholar
• Wu G, Bazer FW, Cudd TA, Meininger CJ, Spencer TE. Maternal nutrition and fetal development. J Nutr. 2004;134(9):2169–2172.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramakrishnan U. Prevalence of micronutrient malnutrition worldwide. Nutr Rev. 2002;60(5 Pt 2):S46–S52.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Viteri FE. Prevention of iron deficiency. In: Howson CP, Kennedy E, Horwitz A, editors. Micronutrient Deficiencies: A Toolkit for Policymakers and Public Health Workers. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1998:45–102.
   Google Scholar
• Hercberg S, Preziosi P, Galan P. Iron deficiency in Europe. Public Health Nutr. 2001;4(2B):537–545.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Looker AC, Dallman PR, Carroll MD, Gunter EW, Johnson CL. Prevalence of iron deficiency in the United States. JAMA. 1997;277(12): 973–976.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sukchan P, Liabsuetrakul T, Chongsuvivatwong V, Songwathana P, Sornsrivichai V, Kuning M. Inadequacy of nutrients intake among pregnant women in the deep south of Thailand. BMC Public Health. 2010;10:572.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pathak P, Kapil U, Kapoor SK, et al. Prevalence of multiple micronutrient deficiencies amongst pregnant women in a rural area of Haryana. Indian J Pediatr. 2004;71(11):1007–1014.
   Google Scholar
• Turner RE, Langkamp-Henken B, Littell RC, Lukowski MJ, Suarez MF. Comparing nutrient intake from food to the estimated average requirements shows middle- to upper-income pregnant women lack iron and possibly magnesium. J Am Diet Assoc. 2003;103(4):461–466.
   Google Scholar
• Erkkola M, Karppinen M, Järvinen A et al. Folate, vitamin D, and iron intakes are low among pregnant Finnish women. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1998;52:742–748.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scholl TO. Iron status during pregnancy: setting the stage for mother and infant. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005;81(5):1218S–1222S.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Viteri FE. The consequences of iron deficiency and anemia in pregnancy. In: Allen L, King J, Lonnerdal B, editors. Nutrient Regulation During Pregnancy, Lactation and Growth. New York, NY: Plenum Press; 1994:127–139.
   Google Scholar
• Bothwell TH. Iron requirements in pregnancy and strategies to meet them. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;72(Suppl 1):257S–264S.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stoltzfus RJ, Dreyfuss ML. Guidelines for the Use of Iron Supplements to Prevent and Treat Iron Deficiency Anemia. Washington, DC: International Nutritional Anemia Consultative Group; 1998.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. Iron Deficiency Anaemia: Assessment, Prevention, and Control. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2001.
   Google Scholar
• Allen LH. Anemia and iron deficiency: effects on pregnancy outcome. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;71(Suppl 5):1280S–1284S.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ronnenberg AG, Wood RJ, Wang X, et al. Preconception hemoglobin and ferritin concentrations are associated with pregnancy outcome in a prospective cohort of Chinese women. J Nutr. 2004;134(10):2586–2591.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhou LM, Yang WW, Hua JZ, Deng CQ, Tao X, Stoltzfus RJ. Relation of hemoglobin measured at different times in pregnancy to preterm birth and low birth weight in Shanghai, China. Am J Epidemiol. 1998;148(10):998–1006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ziaei S, Norrozi M, Faghihzadeh S, Jafarbegloo E. A randomised placebo-controlled trial to determine the effect of iron supplementation on pregnancy outcome in pregnant women with haemoglobin > or = 13.2 g/dL. BJOG. 2007;114(6):684–688.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Milman N. Iron prophylaxis in pregnancy – general or individual and in which dose? Ann Hematol. 2006;85(12):821–828.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scholl TO, Hediger ML. Anemia and iron-deficiency anemia: compilation of data on pregnancy outcome. Am J Clin Nutr. 1994;59(Suppl 2):492S–501S.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scholl TO, Hediger ML, Fischer RL, Shearer JW. Anemia vs iron deficiency: increased risk of preterm delivery in a prospective study. Am J Clin Nutr. 1992;55(5):985–988.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singla PN, Tyagi M, Kumar A, Dash D, Shankar R. Fetal growth in maternal anaemia. J Trop Pediatr. 1997;43(2):89–92.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scanlon KS, Yip R, Schieve LA, Cogswell ME. High and low hemoglobin levels during pregnancy: differential risks for preterm birth and small for gestational age. Obstet Gynecol 2000;96(5 Pt 1):741–748.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bondevik GT, Lie RT, Ulstein M, Kvale G. Maternal hematological status and risk of low birth weight and preterm delivery in Nepal. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2001;80(5):402–408.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alwan NA, Greenwood DC, Simpson NA, McArdle HJ, Godfrey KM, Cade JE. Dietary iron intake during early pregnancy and birth outcomes in a cohort of British women. Hum Reprod. 2011;26(4):911–919.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Milman N. Iron and pregnancy – a delicate balance. Ann Hematol. 2006;85(9):559–565.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Milman N, Byg KE, Bergholt T, Eriksen L, Hvas AM. Body iron and individual iron prophylaxis in pregnancy – should the iron dose be adjusted according to serum ferritin? Ann Hematol. 2006;85(9):567–573.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steer P, Alam MA, Wadsworth J, Welch A. Relation between maternal haemoglobin concentration and birth weight in different ethnic groups. BMJ. 1995;310(6978):489–491.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rao S, Yajnik CS, Kanade A, et al. Intake of micronutrient-rich foods in rural Indian mothers is associated with the size of their babies at birth: Pune Maternal Nutrition Study. J Nutr. 2001;131(4):1217–1224.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eskeland B, Malterud K, Ulvik RJ, Hunskaar S. Iron supplementation in pregnancy: is less enough? A randomized, placebo controlled trial of low dose iron supplementation with and without heme iron. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand.1997;76(9):822–828.
   Google Scholar
• Makrides M, Crowther CA, Gibson RA, Gibson RS, Skeaff CM. Efficacy and tolerability of low-dose iron supplements during pregnancy: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003;78(1):145–153.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meier PR, Nickerson HJ, Olson KA, Berg RL, Meyer JA. Prevention of iron deficiency anemia in adolescent and adult pregnancies. Clin Med Res. 2003;1(1):29–36.
   Google Scholar
• Cogswell ME, Parvanta I, Ickes L, Yip R, Brittenham GM. Iron supplementation during pregnancy, anemia, and birth weight: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003;78(4):773–781.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siega-Riz AM, Hartzema AG, Turnbull C, Thorp J, McDonald T, Cogswell ME. The effects of prophylactic iron given in prenatal supplements on iron status and birth outcomes: a randomized controlled trial. Am JObstet Gynecol. 2006;194(2):512–519.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christian P, Khatry SK, Katz J, et al. Effects of alternative maternal micronutrient supplements on low birth weight in rural Nepal: double blind randomised community trial. BMJ. 2003;326(7389):571.
   Google Scholar
• Preziosi P, Prual A, Galan P, Daouda H, Boureima H, Hercberg S. Effect of iron supplementation on the iron status of pregnant women: consequences for newborns. Am J Clin Nutr. 1997;66(5):1178–1182.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allen LH. Biological mechanisms that might underlie iron’s effects on fetal growth and preterm birth. J Nutr. 2001;131(2S-2):581S–589S.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campos MS, Barrionuevo M, Alferez MJ, et al. Interactions among iron, calcium, phosphorus and magnesium in the nutritionally iron-deficient rat. Exp Physiol. 1998;83(6):771–781.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fowden AL, Szemere J, Hughes P, Gilmour RS, Forhead AJ. The effects of cortisol on the growth rate of the sheep fetus during late gestation. JEndocrinol. 1996;151(1):97–105.
   Google Scholar
• Li J, Saunders JC, Gilmour RS, Silver M, Fowden AL. Insulin-like growth factor-II messenger ribonucleic acid expression in fetal tissues of the sheep during late gestation: effects of cortisol. Endocrinology. 1993;132(5):2083–2089.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Brien KO, Zavaleta N, Abrams SA, Caulfield LE. Maternal iron status influences iron transfer to the fetus during the third trimester of pregnancy. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003;77(4):924–930.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roughead ZK, Hunt JR. Adaptation in iron absorption: iron supplementation reduces nonheme-iron but not heme-iron absorption from food. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;72(4):982–989.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Casanueva E, Viteri FE. Iron and oxidative stress in pregnancy. J Nutr. 2003;133(5 Suppl 2):1700S–1708S.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Viteri FE, Liu X, Martin A, Tolomei K. True absorption and retention of supplemental iron is more efficient when administered every three days rather than daily to iron-normal and iron-deficient rats. J Nutr. 1995;125(1):82–91.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Srigiridhar K, Nair KM, Subramanian R, Singotamu L. Oral repletion of iron induces free radical mediated alterations in the gastrointestinal tract of rat. Mol Cell Biochem. 2001;219(1–2):91–98.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Srigiridhar K, Nair KM. Supplementation with alpha-tocopherol or a combination of alpha-tocopherol and ascorbic acid protects the gastrointestinal tract of iron-deficient rats against iron-induced oxidative damage during iron repletion. Br J Nutr. 2000;84(2):165–173.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beutler E. Disorders of iron metabolism. In: Lichtman MA, Beutler E, Kipps TJ, et al, editors. Williams Hematology, 7th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2006:511
   Google Scholar
• Cook JD. Diagnosis and management of iron-deficiency anaemia. Best PractRes Clin Haematol. 2005;18(2):319–332.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Expert Scientific Working Group. Summary of a report on assessment of the iron nutritional status of the United States population. Am J Clin Nutr. 1985;42(6):1318–1330.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bothwell TH, Charlton RW, Cook JD, Finch CA. Iron Metabolism in Man. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications; 1979.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization/United Nations Children’s Fund/United Nations University. Indicators for assessing iron deficiency and strategies for its prevention. Geneva: World Health Organization; 1996.
   Google Scholar
• Walters GO, Miller FM, Worwood M. Serum ferritin concentration and iron stores in normal subjects. J Clin Pathol. 1973;26(10):770–772.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Milman N. Serum ferritin in Danes: studies of iron status from infancy to old age, during blood donation and pregnancy. Int J Hematol. 1996;63(2):103–135.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hill CC, Pickinpaugh J. Physiologic changes in pregnancy. Surg Clin North Am. 2008;88(2):391–401.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mandruzzato G, Antsaklis A, Botet F, et al. Intrauterine restriction (IUGR). JPerinatMed. 2008;36(4):277–281.
   Google Scholar
• Imdad A, Yakoob MY, Siddiqui S, Bhutta ZA. Screening and triage of intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) in general population and high risk pregnancies: a systematic review with a focus on reduction of IUGR related stillbirths. BMC Public Health. 2011;11 Suppl 3:S1.
   Google Scholar
• Gardosi J, Figueras F, Clausson B, Francis A. The customised growth potential: an international research tool to study the epidemiology of fetal growth. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol. 2011;25(1):2–10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kramer MS. Determinants of low birth weight: methodological assessment and meta-analysis. Bull World Health Organ. 1987;65(5):663–737.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar