1,754
Views
21
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder And Borderline Personality Disorder In Adults: A Review Of Their Links And Risks

, & ORCID Icon
Pages 3115-3129 | Published online: 08 Nov 2019

References

  • Association AP. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5®). American Psychiatric Pub; 2013.
  • Kessler RC, Adler L, Barkley R, et al. The prevalence and correlates of adult ADHD in the United States: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Am J Psychiatry. 2006;163(4):716–723. doi:10.1176/ajp.2006.163.4.71616585449
  • Bernardi S, Faraone SV, Cortese S, et al. The lifetime impact of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Psychol Med. 2012;42(4):875. doi:10.1017/S003329171100153X21846424
  • Prada P, Hasler R, Baud P, et al. Distinguishing borderline personality disorder from adult attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a clinical and dimensional perspective. Psychiatry Res. 2014;217(1):107–114. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2014.03.00624656900
  • Corbisiero S, Stieglitz R-D, Retz W, Rösler M. Is emotional dysregulation part of the psychopathology of ADHD in adults? ADHD Atten Deficit Hyperact Disord. 2013;5(2):83–92. doi:10.1007/s12402-012-0097-z
  • Shaw P, Stringaris A, Nigg J, Leibenluft E. Emotional dysregulation and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2014;171(3):276–293. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.1307096624480998
  • Biederman J, Spencer TJ, Petty C, et al. Longitudinal course of deficient emotional self-regulation CBCL profile in youth with ADHD: prospective controlled study. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2012;8:267–276. doi:10.2147/NDT.S2967022848182
  • Philipsen A, Limberger MF, Lieb K, et al. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder as a potentially aggravating factor in borderline personality disorder. Br J Psychiatry J Ment Sci. 2008;192(2):118–123. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.107.035782
  • Lieb K, Zanarini MC, Schmahl C, Linehan MM, Bohus M. Borderline personality disorder. Lancet Lond Engl. 2004;364(9432):453–461. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(04)16770-6
  • Chanen A, Sharp C, Hoffman P. Prevention and early intervention for borderline personality disorder: a novel public health priority. World Psychiatry. 2017;16(2):215–216. doi:10.1002/wps.2042928498598
  • Andrulonis PA, Glueck BC, Stroebel CF, Vogel NG. Borderline personality subcategories. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1982;170(11):670–679. doi:10.1097/00005053-198211000-000067119767
  • Jacob CP, Romanos J, Dempfle A, et al. Co-morbidity of adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder with focus on personality traits and related disorders in a tertiary referral center. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2007;257(6):309–317. doi:10.1007/s00406-007-0722-617401730
  • Matthies S, van Elst LT, Feige B, et al. Severity of childhood attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder–a risk factor for personality disorders in adult life? J Personal Disord. 2011;25(1):101–114. doi:10.1521/pedi.2011.25.1.101
  • Rasmussen P, Gillberg C. Natural outcome of ADHD with developmental coordination disorder at age 22 years: a controlled, longitudinal, community-based study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2000;39(11):1424–1431. doi:10.1097/00004583-200011000-0001711068898
  • Linehan MM. Cognitive-Behavioral Treatment of Borderline Personality Disorder. New York: Guilford Press; 1993.
  • Storebø OJ, Simonsen E. Is ADHD an early stage in the development of borderline personality disorder? Nord J Psychiatry. 2014;68(5):289–295. doi:10.3109/08039488.2013.84199224117059
  • Davids E, Gastpar M. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and borderline personality disorder. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2005;29(6):865–877. doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2005.04.03315951086
  • Philipsen A. Differential diagnosis and comorbidity of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and borderline personality disorder (BPD) in adults. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2006;256(1):i42–i46. doi:10.1007/s00406-006-1006-216977551
  • Matthies SD, Philipsen A. Common ground in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD)-review of recent findings. Borderline Personal Disord Emot Dysregulation. 2014;1:3. doi:10.1186/2051-6673-1-3
  • Matthies S, Philipsen A. Comorbidity of Personality Disorders and Adult Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)–review of recent findings. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2016;18(4):33. doi:10.1007/s11920-016-0675-426893231
  • van Reekum R, Conway CA, Gansler D, White R, Bachman DL. Neurobehavioral study of borderline personality disorder. J Psychiatry Neurosci. 1993;18(3):121–129.8499428
  • Andrulonis PA, Glueck BC, Stroebel CF, Vogel NG, Shapiro AL, Aldridge DM. Organic brain dysfunction and the borderline syndrome. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 1981;4(1):47–66. doi:10.1016/S0193-953X(18)30936-57232237
  • Andrulonis PA, Vogel NG. Comparison of borderline personality subcategories to schizophrenic and affective disorders. Br J Psychiatry J Ment Sci. 1984;144:358–363. doi:10.1192/bjp.144.4.358
  • Fossati A, Novella L, Donati D, Donini M, Maffei C. History of childhood attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms and borderline personality disorder: a controlled study. Compr Psychiatry. 2002;43(5):369–377. doi:10.1053/comp.2002.3463412216012
  • Ward MF, Wender PH, Reimherr FW. The Wender Utah Rating Scale: an aid in the retrospective diagnosis of childhood attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 1993;150(6):885–890. doi:10.1176/ajp.150.6.8858494063
  • Speranza M, Revah-Levy A, Cortese S, Falissard B, Pham-Scottez A, Corcos M. ADHD in adolescents with borderline personality disorder. BMC Psychiatry. 2011;11(1):158. doi:10.1186/1471-244X-11-15821961882
  • Fischer M, Barkley RA, Smallish L, Fletcher K. Young adult follow-up of hyperactive children: self-reported psychiatric disorders, comorbidity, and the role of childhood conduct problems and teen CD. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2002;30(5):463–475. doi:10.1023/A:101986481377612403150
  • Miller CJ, Flory JD, Miller SR, Harty SC, Newcorn JH, Halperin JM. Childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and the emergence of personality disorders in adolescence: a prospective follow-up study. J Clin Psychiatry. 2008;69(9):1477–1484.19193347
  • Stepp SD, Burke JD, Hipwell AE, Loeber R. Trajectories of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and oppositional defiant disorder symptoms as precursors of borderline personality disorder symptoms in adolescent girls. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2012;40(1):7–20. doi:10.1007/s10802-011-9530-621671009
  • Ferrer M, Andión O, Matalí J, et al. Comorbid attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in borderline patients defines an impulsive subtype of borderline personality disorder. J Personal Disord. 2010;24(6):812–822. doi:10.1521/pedi.2010.24.6.812
  • Weibel S, Nicastro R, Prada P, et al. Screening for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in borderline personality disorder. J Affect Disord. 2018;226:85–91. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2017.09.02728964997
  • Asherson P, Young AH, Eich-Höchli D, Moran P, Porsdal V, Deberdt W. Differential diagnosis, comorbidity, and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in relation to bipolar disorder or borderline personality disorder in adults. Curr Med Res Opin. 2014;30(8):1657–1672. doi:10.1185/03007995.2014.91580024804976
  • Cumyn L, French L, Hechtman L. Comorbidity in adults with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Can J Psychiatry Rev Can Psychiatr. 2009;54(10):673–683. doi:10.1177/070674370905401004
  • Rösler M, Retz W, Yaqoobi K, Burg E, Retz-Junginger P. Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder in female offenders: prevalence, psychiatric comorbidity and psychosocial implications. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2009;259(2):98–105. doi:10.1007/s00406-008-0841-818806916
  • Smith TE, Samuel DB. A multi-method examination of the links between ADHD and personality disorder. J Personal Disord. 2017;31(1):26–48. doi:10.1521/pedi_2016_30_236
  • Dowson JH, McLean A, Bazanis E, et al. The specificity of clinical characteristics in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a comparison with patients with borderline personality disorder. Eur Psychiatry J Assoc Eur Psychiatr. 2004;19(2):72–78. doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2003.07.010
  • Edebol H, Helldin L, Norlander T. Objective measures of behavior manifestations in adult ADHD and differentiation from participants with bipolar II disorder, borderline personality disorder, participants with disconfirmed ADHD as well as normative participants. Clin Pract Epidemiol Ment Health CP EMH. 2012;8:134–143. doi:10.2174/174501790120801013423166565
  • Philipsen A, Feige B, Hesslinger B, et al. Borderline typical symptoms in adult patients with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Atten Deficit Hyperact Disord. 2009;1(1):11–18. doi:10.1007/s12402-009-0001-7
  • Bohus M, Limberger MF, Frank U, Chapman AL, Kühler T, Stieglitz R-D. Psychometric properties of the Borderline Symptom List (BSL). Psychopathology. 2007;40(2):126–132. doi:10.1159/00009849317215599
  • O’Malley GK, McHugh L, Mac Giollabhui N, Bramham J. Characterizing adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity-disorder and comorbid borderline personality disorder: ADHD symptoms, psychopathology, cognitive functioning and psychosocial factors. Eur Psychiatry J Assoc Eur Psychiatr. 2016;31:29–36. doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2015.09.012
  • Patton JH, Stanford MS, Barratt ES. Factor structure of the Barratt impulsiveness scale. J Clin Psychol. 1995;51(6):768–774. doi:10.1002/1097-4679(199511)51:6<768::aid-jclp2270510607>3.0.co;2-18778124
  • Richard-Lepouriel H, Kung A-L, Hasler R, et al. Impulsivity and its association with childhood trauma experiences across bipolar disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and borderline personality disorder. J Affect Disord. 2019;244:33–41. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2018.07.06030336349
  • Krause-Utz A, Cackowski S, Daffner S, et al. Delay discounting and response disinhibition under acute experimental stress in women with borderline personality disorder and adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Psychol Med. 2016;46(15):3137–3149. doi:10.1017/S003329171600167727572473
  • Lampe K, Konrad K, Kroener S, Fast K, Kunert HJ, Herpertz SC. Neuropsychological and behavioural disinhibition in adult ADHD compared to borderline personality disorder. Psychol Med. 2007;37(12):1717–1729. doi:10.1017/S003329170700051717506923
  • van Dijk FE, Lappenschaar M, Kan CC, Verkes RJ, Buitelaar JK. Symptomatic overlap between attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and borderline personality disorder in women: the role of temperament and character traits. Compr Psychiatry. 2012;53(1):39–47. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2011.02.00721511251
  • Krause-Utz A, Sobanski E, Alm B, et al. Impulsivity in relation to stress in patients with borderline personality disorder with and without co-occurring attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: an exploratory study. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2013;201(2):116–123. doi:10.1097/NMD.0b013e31827f646223364120
  • Mowinckel AM, Pedersen ML, Eilertsen E, Biele G. A meta-analysis of decision-making and attention in adults with ADHD. J Atten Disord. 2015;19(5):355–367. doi:10.1177/108705471455887225477020
  • Sebastian A, Jung P, Krause-Utz A, Lieb K, Schmahl C, Tüscher O. Frontal dysfunctions of impulse control - a systematic review in borderline personality disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Front Hum Neurosci. 2014;8:698. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.0069825232313
  • Xenaki L-A, Pehlivanidis A. Clinical, neuropsychological and structural convergences and divergences between attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and borderline personality disorder: a systematic review. Personal Individ Differ. 2015;86:438–449. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.06.049
  • Lawrence KA, Allen JS, Chanen AM. Impulsivity in borderline personality disorder: reward-based decision-making and its relationship to emotional distress. J Personal Disord. 2010;24(6):786–799. doi:10.1521/pedi.2010.24.6.785
  • Coffey SF, Schumacher JA, Baschnagel JS, Hawk LW, Holloman G. Impulsivity and risk-taking in borderline personality disorder with and without substance use disorders. Personal Disord. 2011;2(2):128–141. doi:10.1037/a002057422448732
  • Leyton M, Okazawa H, Diksic M, et al. Brain regional alpha-[11C]methyl-L-tryptophan trapping in impulsive subjects with borderline personality disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2001;158(5):775–782. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.158.5.77511329401
  • McCloskey MS, New AS, Siever LJ, et al. Evaluation of behavioral impulsivity and aggression tasks as endophenotypes for borderline personality disorder. J Psychiatr Res. 2009;43(12):1036–1048. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2009.01.00219232640
  • Barker V, Romaniuk L, Cardinal RN, Pope M, Nicol K, Hall J. Impulsivity in borderline personality disorder. Psychol Med. 2015;45(9):1955–1964. doi:10.1017/S003329171400307925600066
  • Jacob GA, Gutz L, Bader K, Lieb K, Tüscher O, Stahl C. Impulsivity in borderline personality disorder: impairment in self-report measures, but not behavioral inhibition. Psychopathology. 2010;43(3):180–188. doi:10.1159/00030417420375540
  • van Dijk F, Schellekens A, van den Broek P, Kan C, Verkes R-J, Buitelaar J. Do cognitive measures of response inhibition differentiate between attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and borderline personality disorder? Psychiatry Res. 2014;215(3):733–739. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2013.12.03424418050
  • Cackowski S, Reitz A-C, Ende G, et al. Impact of stress on different components of impulsivity in borderline personality disorder. Psychol Med. 2014;44(15):3329–3340. doi:10.1017/S003329171400042725065373
  • Sebastian A, Jacob G, Lieb K, Tüscher O. Impulsivity in borderline personality disorder: a matter of disturbed impulse control or a facet of emotional dysregulation? Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2013;15(2):339.23424747
  • Santangelo P, Bohus M, Ebner-Priemer UW. Ecological momentary assessment in borderline personality disorder: a review of recent findings and methodological challenges. J Personal Disord. 2014;28(4):555–576. doi:10.1521/pedi_2012_26_067
  • Rüfenacht E, Euler S, Prada P, et al. Emotion dysregulation in adults suffering from attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), a comparison with borderline personality disorder (BPD). Borderline Personal Disord Emot Dysregulation. 2019;6:11. doi:10.1186/s40479-019-0108-1
  • Mörstedt B, Corbisiero S, Bitto H, Stieglitz R-D. Emotional symptoms and their contribution to functional impairment in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Atten Deficit Hyperact Disord. 2016;8(1):21–33. doi:10.1007/s12402-015-0181-2
  • Skirrow C, Asherson P. Emotional lability, comorbidity and impairment in adults with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Affect Disord. 2013;147(1):80–86. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2012.10.01123218897
  • Vidal R, Valero S, Nogueira M, et al. Emotional lability: the discriminative value in the diagnosis of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adults. Compr Psychiatry. 2014;55(7):1712–1719. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2014.07.00125088514
  • Skirrow C, Ebner-Priemer U, Reinhard I, Malliaris Y, Kuntsi J, Asherson P. Everyday emotional experience of adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: evidence for reactive and endogenous emotional lability. Psychol Med. 2014;44(16):3571–3583. doi:10.1017/S003329171400103225066432
  • Cavelti M, Corbisiero S, Bitto H, et al. A comparison of self-reported emotional regulation skills in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and borderline personality disorder. J Atten Disord. 2017:1087054717698814. doi:10.1177/1087054717698814
  • Cackowski S, Krause-Utz A, Van Eijk J, et al. Anger and aggression in borderline personality disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder - does stress matter? Borderline Personal Disord Emot Dysregulation. 2017;4:6. doi:10.1186/s40479-017-0057-5
  • Gratz KL, Roemer L. Multidimensional assessment of emotion regulation and dysregulation: development, factor structure, and initial validation of the difficulties in emotion regulation scale. J Psychopathol Behav Assess. 2004;26(1):41–54. doi:10.1023/B:JOBA.0000007455.08539.94
  • Hirsch O, Chavanon M, Riechmann E, Christiansen H. Emotional dysregulation is a primary symptom in adult Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). J Affect Disord. 2018;232:41–47. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2018.02.00729477097
  • Roberts BA, Martel MM, Nigg JT. Are there executive dysfunction subtypes within ADHD? J Atten Disord. 2017;21(4):284–293. doi:10.1177/108705471351034924214969
  • Hirsch O, Chavanon ML, Christiansen H. Emotional dysregulation subgroups in patients with adult Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): a cluster analytic approach. Sci Rep. 2019;9. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-42018-y
  • Moukhtarian TR, Mintah RS, Moran P, Asherson P. Emotion dysregulation in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and borderline personality disorder. Borderline Personal Disord Emot Dysregulation. 2018;5:9. doi:10.1186/s40479-018-0086-8
  • Posner J, Kass E, Hulvershorn L. Using stimulants to treat ADHD-related emotional lability. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2014;16(10):478. doi:10.1007/s11920-014-0478-425135778
  • van Zutphen L, Siep N, Jacob GA, Goebel R, Arntz A. Emotional sensitivity, emotion regulation and impulsivity in borderline personality disorder: a critical review of fMRI studies. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2015;51:64–76. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.01.00125616185
  • Petrovic P, Castellanos FX. Top-down dysregulation—from ADHD to emotional instability. Front Behav Neurosci. 2016;10. doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2016.00070
  • IsHak WW, Elbau I, Ismail A, et al. Quality of life in borderline personality disorder. Harv Rev Psychiatry. 2013;21(3):138–150. doi:10.1097/HRP.0b013e318293711623660969
  • Agarwal R, Goldenberg M, Perry R, Ishak WW. The quality of life of adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Innov Clin Neurosci. 2012;9(5–6):10–21.
  • Euler S, Nolte T, Constantinou M, et al. Interpersonal problems in borderline personality disorder: associations with mentalizing, emotion regulation, and impulsiveness. J Personal Disord. 2019:1–17. doi:10.1521/pedi_2019_33_427
  • Uekermann J, Kraemer M, Abdel-Hamid M, et al. Social cognition in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2010;34(5):734–743. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.10.00919857516
  • Herr NR, Rosenthal MZ, Geiger PJ, Erikson K. Difficulties with emotion regulation mediate the relationship between borderline personality disorder symptom severity and interpersonal problems. Personal Ment Health. 2013;7(3):191–202. doi:10.1002/pmh.120424343962
  • Perroud N, Badoud D, Weibel S, et al. Mentalization in adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: comparison with controls and patients with borderline personality disorder. Psychiatry Res. 2017;256:334–341. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2017.06.08728675858
  • Winsper C. The aetiology of borderline personality disorder (BPD): contemporary theories and putative mechanisms. Curr Opin Psychol. 2018;21:105–110. doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.10.00529182951
  • Fossati A, Madeddu F, Maffei C. Borderline personality disorder and childhood sexual abuse: a meta-analytic study. J Personal Disord. 1999;13(3):268–280.
  • Paris J. The treatment of borderline personality disorder: implications of research on diagnosis, etiology, and outcome. Annu Rev Clin Psychol. 2009;5(1):277–290. doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.03\2408.15345718976137
  • Rucklidge JJ, Brown DL, Crawford S, Kaplan BJ. Retrospective reports of childhood trauma in adults with ADHD. J Atten Disord. 2006;9(4):631–641. doi:10.1177/108705470528389216648230
  • Distel MA, Middeldorp CM, Trull TJ, Derom CA, Willemsen G, Boomsma DI. Life events and borderline personality features: the influence of gene-environment interaction and gene-environment correlation. Psychol Med. 2011;41(4):849–860. doi:10.1017/S003329171000129720594379
  • Distel MA, Carlier A, Middeldorp CM, Derom CA, Lubke GH, Boomsma DI. Borderline personality traits and adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms: a genetic analysis of comorbidity. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2011;156(7):817–825. doi:10.1002/ajmg.b.31226
  • Brikell I, Kuja-Halkola R, Larsson H. Heritability of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults. Am J Med Genet Part B Neuropsychiatr Genet Off Publ Int Soc Psychiatr Genet. 2015;168(6):406–413. doi:10.1002/ajmg.b.32335
  • Amad A, Ramoz N, Thomas P, Jardri R, Gorwood P. Genetics of borderline personality disorder: systematic review and proposal of an integrative model. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2014;40:6–19. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.01.00324456942
  • Newton-Howes G, Clark LA, Chanen A. Personality disorder across the life course. Lancet Lond Engl. 2015;385(9969):727–734. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61283-6
  • Kuja-Halkola R, Juto KL, Skoglund C, et al. Do borderline personality disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder co-aggregate in families? A population-based study of 2 million Swedes. Mol Psychiatry. 2018:1. doi:10.1038/s41380-018-0248-5
  • Mistry S, Escott-Price V, Florio AD, Smith DJ, Zammit S. Genetic risk for bipolar disorder and psychopathology from childhood to early adulthood. J Affect Disord. 2019;246:633–639. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2018.12.09130611060
  • Wertz J, Caspi A, Ambler A, et al. Borderline symptoms at age 12 signal risk for poor outcomes during the transition to adulthood: findings from a genetically sensitive longitudinal cohort study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2019. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2019.07.005
  • Zanarini MC, Frankenburg FR, Hennen J, Reich DB, Silk KR. Prediction of the 10-year course of borderline personality disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2006;163(5):827–832. doi:10.1176/ajp.2006.163.5.82716648323
  • Gunderson JG, Stout RL, McGlashan TH, et al. Ten-year course of borderline personality disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2011;68(8):827–837. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.3721464343
  • Morgan TA, Chelminski I, Young D, Dalrymple K, Zimmerman M. Differences between older and younger adults with borderline personality disorder on clinical presentation and impairment. J Psychiatr Res. 2013;47(10):1507–1513. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2013.06.00923866737
  • Biederman J, Petty CR, Evans M, Small J, Faraone SV. How persistent is ADHD? A controlled 10-year follow-up study of boys with ADHD. Psychiatry Res. 2010;177(3):299–304. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2009.12.01020452063
  • Moffitt TE, Houts R, Asherson P, et al. Is adult ADHD a childhood-onset neurodevelopmental disorder? Evidence from a four-decade longitudinal cohort study. Am J Psychiatry. 2015;172(10):967–977. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2015.1410126625998281
  • Caye A, Rocha TB-M, Anselmi L, et al. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder trajectories from childhood to young adulthood: evidence from a birth cohort supporting a late-onset syndrome. JAMA Psychiatry. 2016;73(7):705–712. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2016.038327192050
  • Agnew-Blais JC, Polanczyk GV, Danese A, Wertz J, Moffitt TE, Arseneault L. Evaluation of the persistence, remission, and emergence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in young adulthood. JAMA Psychiatry. 2016;73(7):713–720. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2016.046527192174
  • Castellanos FX. Is adult-onset ADHD a distinct entity? Am J Psychiatry. 2015;172(10):929–931. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2015.1507098826423474
  • Asherson P, Agnew-Blais J. Annual research review: does late-onset attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder exist? J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2019;60(4):333–352. doi:10.1111/jcpp.1302030843223
  • van Dijk F, Lappenschaar M, Kan C, Verkes R-J, Buitelaar J. Lifespan attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and borderline personality disorder symptoms in female patients: a latent class approach. Psychiatry Res. 2011;190(2):327–334. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2011.06.02321794926
  • Lynn DE, Lubke G, Yang M, et al. Temperament and character profiles and the dopamine D4 receptor gene in ADHD. Am J Psychiatry. 2005;162(5):906–913. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.162.5.90615863792
  • Anckarsäter H, Stahlberg O, Larson T, et al. The impact of ADHD and autism spectrum disorders on temperament, character, and personality development. Am J Psychiatry. 2006;163(7):1239–1244. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.163.7.123916816230
  • Fossati A, Donati D, Donini M, Novella L, Bagnato M, Maffei C. Temperament, character, and attachment patterns in borderline personality disorder. J Personal Disord. 2001;15(5):390–402. doi:10.1521/pedi.15.5.390.19197
  • Barnow S, Herpertz SC, Spitzer C, et al. Temperament and character in patients with borderline personality disorder taking gender and comorbidity into account. Psychopathology. 2007;40(6):369–378. doi:10.1159/00010646717652949
  • Pinzone V, De Rossi P, Trabucchi G, Lester D, Girardi P, Pompili M. Temperament correlates in adult ADHD: a systematic review. J Affect Disord. 2019;252:394–403. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2019.04.00631003108
  • Cloninger CR, Svrakic DM, Przybeck TR. A psychobiological model of temperament and character. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1993;50(12):975–990. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1993.018202400590088250684
  • Akiskal HS, Mendlowicz MV, Jean-Louis G, et al. TEMPS-A: validation of a short version of a self-rated instrument designed to measure variations in temperament. J Affect Disord. 2005;85(1–2):45–52. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2003.10.01215780675
  • Perroud N, Cordera P, Zimmermann J, et al. Comorbidity between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and bipolar disorder in a specialized mood disorders outpatient clinic. J Affect Disord. 2014;168:161–166. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2014.06.05325051093
  • Eich D, Gamma A, Malti T, et al. Temperamental differences between bipolar disorder, borderline personality disorder, and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: some implications for their diagnostic validity. J Affect Disord. 2014;169:101–104. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2014.05.02825173432
  • Carlotta D, Borroni S, Maffei C, Fossati A. On the relationship between retrospective childhood ADHD symptoms and adult BPD features: the mediating role of action-oriented personality traits. Compr Psychiatry. 2013;54(7):943–952. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2013.03.02523648067
  • Battle CL, Shea MT, Johnson DM, et al. Childhood maltreatment associated with adult personality disorders: findings from the Collaborative Longitudinal Personality Disorders Study. J Personal Disord. 2004;18(2):193–211. doi:10.1521/pedi.18.2.193.32777
  • van Dijke A, Ford JD, van der Hart O, van Son M, van der Heijden P, Bühring M. Affect dysregulation in borderline personality disorder and somatoform disorder: differentiating under- and over-regulation. J Personal Disord. 2010;24(3):296–311. doi:10.1521/pedi.2010.24.3.296
  • Björkenstam E, Ekselius L, Burström B, Kosidou K, Björkenstam C. Association between childhood adversity and a diagnosis of personality disorder in young adulthood: a cohort study of 107,287 individuals in Stockholm County. Eur J Epidemiol. 2017;32(8):721–731. doi:10.1007/s10654-017-0264-928560537
  • Björkenstam E, Björkenstam C, Jablonska B, Kosidou K. Cumulative exposure to childhood adversity, and treated attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a cohort study of 543 650 adolescents and young adults in Sweden. Psychol Med. 2018;48(3):498–507. doi:10.1017/S003329171700193328738913
  • Ferrer M, Andión Ó, Calvo N, et al. Differences in the association between childhood trauma history and borderline personality disorder or attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder diagnoses in adulthood. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2017;267(6):541–549. doi:10.1007/s00406-016-0733-227658669
  • Bernstein DP, Stein JA, Newcomb MD, et al. Development and validation of a brief screening version of the childhood trauma questionnaire. Child Abuse Negl. 2003;27(2):169–190. doi:10.1016/S0145-2134(02)00541-012615092
  • Fossati A, Gratz KL, Borroni S, Maffei C, Somma A, Carlotta D. The relationship between childhood history of ADHD symptoms and DSM-IV borderline personality disorder features among personality disordered outpatients: the moderating role of gender and the mediating roles of emotion dysregulation and impulsivity. Compr Psychiatry. 2015;56:121–127. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2014.09.02325446725
  • ROGOSCH FA, CICCHETTI D. Child maltreatment, attention networks, and potential precursors to borderline personality disorder. Dev Psychopathol. 2005;17(4):1071–1089. doi:10.1017/S095457940505050916613431
  • Minzenberg MJ, Poole JH, Vinogradov S. A neurocognitive model of borderline personality disorder: effects of childhood sexual abuse and relationship to adult social attachment disturbance. Dev Psychopathol. 2008;20(1):341–368. doi:10.1017/S095457940800016318211741
  • Kolb B, Mychasiuk R, Muhammad A, Li Y, Frost DO, Gibb R. Experience and the developing prefrontal cortex. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2012;109(Suppl 2):17186–17193. doi:10.1073/pnas.112125110923045653
  • Angst J, Gamma A, Rössler W, Ajdacic V, Klein DN. Childhood adversity and chronicity of mood disorders. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2011;261(1):21–27. doi:10.1007/s00406-010-0120-320589507
  • Binder EB. Understanding gene × early adversity interactions: possibilities for insight in the biology of psychiatric disorders. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2017;267(3):183–185. doi:10.1007/s00406-017-0775-028271247
  • Perroud N, Zewdie S, Stenz L, et al. Methylation of serotonin receptor 3a in Adhd, borderline personality, and bipolar disorders: link with severity of the disorders and childhood maltreatment. Depress Anxiety. 2016;33(1):45–55. doi:10.1002/da.2240626350166
  • Perroud N, Paoloni-Giacobino A, Prada P, et al. Increased methylation of glucocorticoid receptor gene (NR3C1) in adults with a history of childhood maltreatment: a link with the severity and type of trauma. Transl Psychiatry. 2011;1:e59. doi:10.1038/tp.2011.6022832351
  • National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health (UK). Borderline Personality Disorder: Treatment and Management. Leicester (UK): British Psychological Society; 2009 Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK55403/ Accessed 915, 2019.
  • Golubchik P, Sever J, Zalsman G, Weizman A. Methylphenidate in the treatment of female adolescents with cooccurrence of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and borderline personality disorder: a preliminary open-label trial. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2008;23(4):228. doi:10.1097/YIC.0b013e3282f94ae218446088
  • Prada P, Nicastro R, Zimmermann J, Hasler R, Aubry J-M, Perroud N. Addition of methylphenidate to intensive dialectical behaviour therapy for patients suffering from comorbid borderline personality disorder and ADHD: a naturalistic study. ADHD Atten Deficit Hyperact Disord. 2015;7(3):199–209. doi:10.1007/s12402-015-0165-2
  • Cole P, Weibel S, Nicastro R, et al. CBT/DBT skills training for adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Psychiatr Danub. 2016;28(Suppl–1):103–107.27663817
  • Fleming AP, McMahon RJ, Moran LR, Peterson AP, Dreessen A. Pilot randomized controlled trial of dialectical behavior therapy group skills training for ADHD among college students. J Atten Disord. 2015;19(3):260–271. doi:10.1177/108705471453595124874347
  • Philipsen A, Graf E, Tebartz van Elst L, et al. Evaluation of the efficacy and effectiveness of a structured disorder tailored psychotherapy in ADHD in adults: study protocol of a randomized controlled multicentre trial. Atten Deficit Hyperact Disord. 2010;2(4):203–212. doi:10.1007/s12402-010-0046-7