Nightmares in People with COVID-19: Did Coronavirus Infect Our Dreams?

References

• Blanco C, Wall MM, Olfson M. Psychological aspects of the COVID-19 pandemic. J Gen Intern Med. 2020;35:2757–2759. doi:10.1007/s11606-020-05955-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vindegaard N, Benros ME. COVID-19 pandemic and mental health consequences: systematic review of the current evidence. Brain Behav Immun. 2020;89:531–542. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2020.05.048
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deng J, Zhou F, Hou W, et al. The prevalence of depression, anxiety, and sleep disturbances in COVID-19 patients: a meta-analysis. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2021;1486:90–111. doi:10.1111/nyas.14506
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Altena E, Baglioni C, Espie CA, et al. Dealing with sleep problems during home confinement due to the COVID-19 outbreak: practical recommendations from a task force of the European CBT-I Academy. J Sleep Res. 2020;29(4):e13052. doi:10.1111/jsr.13052
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blume C, Schmidt MH, Cajochen C. Effects of the COVID-19 lockdown on human sleep and rest-activity rhythms. Curr Biol. 2020;30:795–797. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2020.06.021
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CasaGrande M, Favieri F, Tambelli R, Forte G. The enemy who sealed the world: effects quarantine due to the COVID-19 on sleep quality, anxiety, and psychological distress in the Italian population. Sleep Med. 2020;75:12–20. doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2020.05.011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cellini N, Canale N, Mioni G, Costa S. Changes in sleep pattern, sense of time and digital media use during COVID‐19 lockdown in Italy. J Sleep Res. 2020;29:e13074. doi:10.1111/jsr.13074
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alfonsi V, Gorgoni M, Scarpelli S, et al. COVID-19 lockdown and poor sleep quality: not the whole story. J Sleep Res. 2021;30:e13368. doi:10.1111/jsr.13368
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franceschini C, Musetti A, Zenesini C, et al. Poor quality of sleep and its consequences on mental health during COVID-19 lockdown in Italy. Front Psychol. 2020;11:3072. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.574475
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wright KP, Linton SK, Withrow D, et al. Sleep in University students prior to and during COVID-19 stay-at-home orders. Curr Biol. 2020;30:797–798. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2020.06.022
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li Y, Qin Q, Sun Q, et al. Insomnia and psychological reactions during the COVID-19 outbreak in China. J Clin Sleep Med. 2020;16:1417–1418. doi:10.5664/jcsm.8524
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jahrami H, BaHammam AS, Bragazzi NL, et al. Sleep problems during the COVID-19 pandemic by population: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Sleep Med. 2021;17:299–313. doi:10.5664/jcsm.8930
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morin CM, Bjorvatn B, Chung F, et al. Insomnia, anxiety, and depression during the COVID-19 pandemic: an International Collaborative Study. Sleep Med. 2021;87:38–45. doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2021.07.035
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferrando M, Bagnasco D, Roustan V, Canonica GW, Braido F, Baiardini I. Sleep complaints and sleep breathing disorders in upper and lower obstructive lung diseases. J Thorac Dis. 2016;8(8):E716–E725. doi:10.21037/jtd.2016.07.82
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh DP, Jamil RT, Mahajan K. Nocturnal cough. In: Cascella M, Rajnik M, Cuomo A, Dulebohn SC, Di Napoli RS, editors. StatPearls. Treasure Island, FL: Stat Pearls Publishing; 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Shi L, Lu ZA, Que JY, et al. Prevalence of and risk factors associated with mental health symptoms among the general population in China during the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic. JAMA Netw Open. 2020;3:e2014053. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.14053
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wesselius HM, Van Den Ende ES, Alsma J, et al. Quality and quantity of sleep and factors associated with sleep disturbance in hospitalized patients. JAMA Int Med. 2018;178:1201–1208. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2018.2669
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barrett D. Dreams about COVID-19 versus normative dreams: trends by gender. Dreaming. 2020;30:216–221. doi:10.1037/drm0000149
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pesonen AK, Lipsanen J, Halonen R, et al. Pandemic dreams: network analysis of dream content during the COVID-19 lockdown. Front Psychol. 2020;11:2569. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.573961
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iorio I, Sommantico M, Parrello S. Dreaming in the time of COVID-19: a quali-quantitative Italian study. Dreaming. 2020;30:199. doi:10.1037/drm0000142
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gorgoni M, Scarpelli S, Alfonsi V, et al. Pandemic dreams: quantitative and qualitative features of the oneiric activity during the lockdown due to COVID-19 in Italy. Sleep Med. 2021;81:20–32. doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2021.02.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fränkl EC, Scarpelli S, Nadorff MR, et al. How our dreams changed during the COVID-19 pandemic: effects and correlates of dream recall frequency during the COVID-19 pandemic: a Multinational Study on 19,355 adults. Nat Sci Sleep. 2021;13:1573–1591. doi:10.2147/NSS.S324142
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mota NB, Weissheimer J, Ribeiro M, et al. Dreaming during the COVID-19 pandemic: computational assessment of dream reports reveals mental suffering related to fear of contagion. PLoS One. 2020;15:e0242903. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0242903
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scarpelli S, Alfonsi V, Mangiaruga A, et al. Pandemic nightmares: effects on dream activity of the COVID-19 lockdown in Italy. J Sleep Res. 2021;30:e13300. doi:10.1111/jsr.13300
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scarpelli S, Gorgoni M, Alfonsi V, et al. The impact of the end of COVID confinement on pandemic dreams, as assessed by a weekly sleep diary: a longitudinal investigation in Italy. J Sleep Res. 2021:e13429. doi:10.1111/jsr.13429
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schredl M, Reinhard I. Gender differences in nightmare frequency: a meta-analysis. Sleep Med Rev. 2011;15:115–121. doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2010.06.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schredl M, Bulkeley K. Dreaming and the COVID-19 pandemic: a survey in a US sample. Dreaming. 2020;30:189. doi:10.1037/drm0000146
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacKay C, DeCicco TL. Pandemic dreaming: the effect of COVID-19 on dream imagery, a pilot study. Dreaming. 2020;30:222. doi:10.1037/drm0000148
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang H, Xia Q, Xiong Z, et al. The psychological distress and coping styles in the early stages of the 2019 coronavirus disease (COVID-19) epidemic in the general mainland Chinese population: a web-based survey. PLoS One. 2020;15:e0233410. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0233410
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Becker RC. Anticipating the long-term cardiovascular effects of COVID-19. J Thromb Thrombolysis. 2020;50:512–524. doi:10.1007/s11239-020-02266-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Del Rio C, Collins LF, Malani P. Long-term health consequences of COVID-19. JAMA. 2020;324:1723–1724. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.19719
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heneka MT, Golenbock D, Latz E, Morgan D, Brown R. Immediate and long-term consequences of COVID-19 infections for the development of neurological disease. Alzheimers Res Ther. 2020;12:1–3. doi:10.1186/s13195-020-00640-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ritchie K, Chan D, Watermeyer T. The cognitive consequences of the COVID-19 epidemic: collateral damage? Brain Commun. 2020;2:fcaa069. doi:10.1093/braincomms/fcaa069
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Iqbal SZ, Li B, Onigu-Otito E, Faraz Naqui M, Shah AA. The long-term mental health effects of COVID-19. Psychiatr Ann. 2020;50:522–525. doi:10.3928/00485713-20201103-01
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nadorff MR, Nazem S, Fiske A. Insomnia symptoms, nightmares, and suicidal ideation in a college student sample. Sleep. 2011;34:93–98. doi:10.1093/sleep/34.1.93
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Selby EA, Ribeiro JD, Joiner TE Jr. What dreams may come: emotional cascades and nightmares in borderline personality disorder. Dreaming. 2013;23:126–144. doi:10.1037/a0032208
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tanskanen A, Tuomilehto J, Viinamäki H, Vartiainen E, Lehtonen J, Puska P. Nightmares as predictors of suicide. Sleep. 2001;24:845–848. doi:10.1093/sleep/24.7.845
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li SX, Lam SP, Mandy WM, Zhang J, Wing YK. Nocturnal sleep disturbances as a predictor of suicide attempts among psychiatric outpatients: a clinical, epidemiologic, prospective study. J Clin Psychiatry. 2010;71:1440–1446. doi:10.4088/JCP.09m05661gry
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sjöström N, Hetta J, Waern M. Persistent nightmares are associated with repeat suicide attempt: a prospective study. Psychiatry Res. 2009;170:208–211. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2008.09.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nadorff MR, Nazem S, Fiske A. Insomnia symptoms, nightmares, and suicide risk: duration of sleep disturbance matters. Suicide Life Threat Behav. 2013;43:139–149. doi:10.1111/sltb.12003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Partinen M, Bjorvatn B, Holzinger B, Chung F, Penzel T, Espie CA; ICOSS-collaboration group. Sleep and circadian problems during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) pandemic: the International COVID‐19 Sleep Study (ICOSS). J Sleep Res. 2021;30:e13206. doi:10.1111/jsr.13206
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chung F, Yegneswaran B, Liao P, et al. STOP questionnaire: a tool to screen patients for obstructive sleep apnea. Anesthesiology. 2008;108:812–821. doi:10.1097/ALN.0b013e31816d83e4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kroenke K, Spitzer RL, Williams JBW, Löwe B. An ultra-brief screening scale for anxiety and depression: the PHQ-4. Psychosomatics. 2009;50:613–621. doi:10.1176/appi.psy.50.6.613
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elo AL, Leppänen A, Jahkola A. Validity of a single-item measure of stress symptoms. Scand J Work Environ Health. 2003;29:444–451. doi:10.5271/sjweh.752
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lang AJ, Wilkins K, Roy-Byrne PP, et al. Abbreviated PTSD checklist (PCL) as a guide to clinical response. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2012;34:332–338. doi:10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2012.02.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Topp CW, Østergaard SD, Søndergaard S, Bech P. The WHO-5 wellbeing index: a systematic review of the literature. Psychother Psychosom. 2015;84:167–176. doi:10.1159/000376585
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Boer AGEM, van Lanschot JJB, Stalmeier PFM, et al. Is a single-item visual analogue scale as valid, reliable and responsive as multi-item scales in measuring quality of life? Qual Life Res. 2004;13:311–320. doi:10.1023/B:QURE.0000018499.64574.1f
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Partinen M, Gislason T. Basic Nordic Sleep Questionnaire (BNSQ): a quantitated measure of subjective sleep complaints. J Sleep Res. 1995;4:150–155. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2869.1995.tb00205.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morin CM, Belleville G, Bélanger L, Ivers H. The Insomnia Severity Index: psychometric indicators to detect insomnia cases and evaluate treatment response. Sleep. 2011;34:601–608. doi:10.1093/sleep/34.5.601
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aeschbach D, Matthews JR, Postolache TT, Jackson MA, Giesen HA, Wehr TA. Two circadian rhythms in the human electroencephalogram during wakefulness. Am J Physiol Reg I. 1999;277:R1771–R1779. doi:10.1152/ajpregu.1999.277.6.R1771
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aeschbach D, Sher L, Postolache TT, Matthews JR, Jackson MA, Wehr TA. A longer biological night in long sleepers than in short sleepers. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003;88:26–30. doi:10.1210/jc.2002-020827
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neylan TC, Marmar CR, Metzler TJ, et al. Sleep disturbances in the Vietnam generation: findings from a nationally representative sample of male Vietnam veterans. Am J Psychiatry. 1998;155:929–933. doi:10.1176/ajp.155.7.929
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tempesta D, Curcio G, De Gennaro L, Ferrara M. Long-term impact of earthquakes on sleep quality. PLoS One. 2013;8:e55936. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0055936
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mian A, Khan S. Coronavirus: the spread of misinformation. BMC Med. 2020;18:1–2. doi:10.1186/s12916-020-01556-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poyraz BÇ, Poyraz CA, Olgun Y, et al. Psychiatric morbidity and protracted symptoms after COVID-19. Psychiatry Res. 2021;295:113604. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113604
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-5. 4th ed. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Dubey S, Biswas P, Ghosh R, et al. Psychosocial impact of COVID-19. Diabetes Metab Syndr. 2020;14:779–788. doi:10.1016/j.dsx.2020.05.035
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levin R, Nielsen T. Nightmares, bad dreams, and emotion dysregulation: a review and new neurocognitive model of dreaming. Curr Dir Psychol Sci. 2009;18:84–88. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01614.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schredl M. Dreams in patients with sleep disorders. Sleep Med Rev. 2009;13:215–221. doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2008.06.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• D’Atri A, Scarpelli S, Schiappa C, et al. Cortical activation during sleep predicts dream experience in narcolepsy. Ann Clin Transl Neur. 2019;6:445–455. doi:10.1002/acn3.718
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Wyk M, Solms ML, Lipinska G. Increased awakenings from non-rapid eye movement sleep explains differences in dream recall frequency in healthy high and low recallers. Front Hum Neurosci. 2019;13:370. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2019.00370
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scarpelli S, Bartolacci C, D’Atri A, et al. Electrophysiological correlates of dream recall during REM sleep: evidence from multiple awakenings and within-subjects design. Nat Sci Sleep. 2020;12:1043. doi:10.2147/NSS.S279786
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Newell SA, Padamadan H, Drake ME Jr. Neurophysiologic studies in nightmare sufferers. Clin Electroencephal. 1992;23:203–206. doi:10.1177/155005949202300410
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Simor P, Bódizs R, Horváth K, Ferri R. Disturbed dreaming and the instability of sleep: altered nonrapid eye movement sleep microstructure in individuals with frequent nightmares as revealed by the cyclic alternating pattern. Sleep. 2013;36:413–419. doi:10.5665/sleep.2462
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Someren EJ. Brain mechanisms of insomnia: new perspectives on causes and consequences. Physiol Rev. 2021;101:995–1046. doi:10.1152/physrev.00046.2019
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakajima S, Inoue Y, Sasai T, et al. Impact of frequency of nightmares comorbid with insomnia on depression in Japanese rural community residents: a cross-sectional study. Sleep Med. 2014;15:371–374. doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2013.11.785
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scarpelli S, Bartolacci C, D’Atri A, Gorgoni M, De Gennaro L. Mental sleep activity and disturbing dreams in the lifespan. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2019;16:3658. doi:10.3390/ijerph16193658
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mangiaruga A, Scarpelli S, Bartolacci C, De Gennaro L. Spotlight on dream recall: the ages of dreams. Nat Sci Sleep. 2018;10:1. doi:10.2147/NSS.S135762
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strunz F. Dreams in the elderly: contents and clinical usefulness. Gesundheitswesen. 1993;55:595–601.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Belicki K. Nightmare frequency versus nightmare distress: relation to psychopathology and cognitive style. J Abnorm Psychol. 1992;101:592–597. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.101.3.592
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chivers L, Blagrove M. Nightmare frequency, personality and acute psychopathology. Pers Individ Diff. 1999;27:843–851. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00033-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schredl M. Effects of state and trait factors on nightmare frequency. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2003;253:241–247. doi:10.1007/s00406-003-0438-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zadra A, Robert G. Dream recall frequency: impact of prospective measures and motivational factors. Conscious Cogn. 2012;21:1695–1702. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2012.08.011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palagini L, Rosenlicht N. Sleep, dreaming, and mental health: a review of historical and neurobiological perspectives. Sleep Med Rev. 2011;15:179–186. doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2010.07.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Al-Jahdhami I, Al-Naamani K, Al-Mawali A. The post-acute COVID-19 syndrome (long COVID). Oman Med J. 2021;36:e220. doi:10.5001/omj.2021.91
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Siclari F, Valli K, Arnulf I. Dreams and nightmares in healthy adults and in patients with sleep and neurological disorders. Lancet Neurol. 2020;19:849–859. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(20)30275-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Szmyd B, Rogut M, Białasiewicz P, Gabryelska A. The impact of glucocorticoids and statins on sleep quality. Sleep Med Rev. 2021;55:101380. doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2020.101380
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merikanto I, Dauvilliers Y, Chung F, et al.; ICOSS members. Disturbances in sleep, circadian rhythms, and daytime functioning in relation to coronavirus infection and long-COVID – a multinational ICOSS study. J Sleep Res. 2021. doi:10.1111/jsr.13542
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar