Central Serous Chorioretinopathy: Pathogenesis and Management

References

• Spaide RF, Campeas L, Haas A, et al. Central serous chorioretinopathy in younger and older adults. Ophthalmology. 1996;103(12):2070–2079. doi:10.1016/S0161-6420(96)30386-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang M, Munch IC, Hasler PW, Prünte C, Larsen M. Central serous chorioretinopathy. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh). 2008;86(2):126–145. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0420.2007.00889.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liegl R, Ulbig MW. Central serous chorioretinopathy. Ophthalmologica. 2014;232(2):65–76. doi:10.1159/000360014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• N V B, Gürlü VP, Esgin H. Long-term macular function in eyes with central serous chorioretinopathy. Clin Experiment Ophthalmol. 2005;33(4):369–372. doi:10.1111/j.1442-9071.2005.01027.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mudvari SS, Goff MJ, Fu AD, et al. The natural history of pigment epithelial detachment associated with central serous chorioretinopathy. Retina. 2007;27(9):1168–1173. doi:10.1097/IAE.0b013e318156db8a
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loo RH, Scott IU, Flynn HW, et al. Factors associated with reduced visual acuity during long-term follow-up of patients with idiopathic central serous chorioretinopathy. Retina. 2002;22(1):19–24. doi:10.1097/00006982-200202000-00004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sahu DK, Namperumalsamy P, Hilton GF, de Sousa NF. Bullous variant of idiopathic central serous chorioretinopathy. Br J Ophthalmol. 2000;84(5):485–492. doi:10.1136/bjo.84.5.485
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Otsuka S, Ohba N, Nakao K. A long-term follow-up study of severe variant of central serous chorioretinopathy. Retina. 2002;22(1):25–32. doi:10.1097/00006982-200202000-00005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yannuzzi LA. Central serous chorioretinopathy: a personal perspective. Am J Ophthalmol. 2010;149(3):361–363. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2009.11.017
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan W-M, Lai TYY, Lai RYK, Tang EWH, Liu DTL, Lam DSC. Safety enhanced photodynamic therapy for chronic central serous chorioretinopathy: one-year results of a prospective study. Retina. 2008;28(1):85–93. doi:10.1097/IAE.0b013e318156777f
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taban M, Boyer DS, Thomas EL, Taban M. Chronic central serous chorioretinopathy: photodynamic therapy. Am J Ophthalmol. 2004;137(6):1073–1080. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2004.01.043
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reibaldi M, Cardascia N, Longo A, et al. Standard-fluence versus low-fluence photodynamic therapy in chronic central serous chorioretinopathy: a nonrandomized clinical trial. Am J Ophthalmol. 2010;149(2):307–315.e2. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2009.08.026
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ojima Y, Hangai M, Sasahara M, et al. Three-dimensional imaging of the foveal photoreceptor layer in central serous chorioretinopathy using high-speed optical coherence tomography. Ophthalmology. 2007;114(12):2197–2207. doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2007.02.015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Song IS, Shin YU, Lee BR. Time-periodic characteristics in the morphology of idiopathic central serous chorioretinopathy evaluated by volume scan using spectral-domain optical coherence tomography. Am J Ophthalmol. 2012;154(2):366–375.e4. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2012.02.031
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kon Y, Iida T, Maruko I, Saito M. The optical coherence tomography–ophthalmoscope for examination of central serous chorioretinopathy with precipitates. Retina. 2008;28(6):864–869. doi:10.1097/IAE.0b013e3181669795
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsujikawa A, Hirami Y, Sasahara M, et al. Alterations of retinal pigment epithelium in central serous chorioretinopathy. Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2007;35:225–230. doi:10.1111/j.1442-9071.2006.01447.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fujimoto H, Gomi F, Wakabayashi T, Sawa M, Tsujikawa M, Tano Y. Morphologic changes in acute central serous chorioretinopathy evaluated by fourier-domain optical coherence tomography. Ophthalmology. 2008;115(9):1494–1500.e2. doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2008.01.021
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shanmugam MP, Bhende M. Retinal pigment epithelial tears associated with idiopathic central serous chorioretinopathy. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2000;48(4):315–317.
   Google Scholar
• Wang M, Sander B, La Cour M, Larsen M. Clinical characteristics of subretinal deposits in central serous chorioretinopathy. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2005;83(6):691–696. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0420.2005.00582.x
   Google Scholar
• Maruko I, Iida T, Sugano Y, Ojima A, Sekiryu T. Subfoveal choroidal thickness in fellow eyes of patients with central serous chorioretinopathy. Retina. 2011;31(8):1603–1608. doi:10.1097/IAE.0b013e31820f4b39
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maruko I, Iida T, Sugano Y, Furuta M, Sekiryu T. One-year choroidal thickness results after photodynamic therapy for central serous chorioretinopathy. Retina. 2011;31(9):1921–1927. doi:10.1097/IAE.0b013e31822bf6b1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agrawal R, Chhablani J, Tan K-A, Shah S, Sarvaiya C, Banker A. Choroidal vascularity index in central serous chorioretinopathy. Retina. 2016;36(9):1646–1651. doi:10.1097/IAE.0000000000001040
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sahoo NK, Maltsev DS, Goud A, Kulikov AN, Chhablani J. Choroidal changes at the leakage site in acute central serous chorioretinopathy. Semin Ophthalmol. 2019;34(5):380–385. doi:10.1080/08820538.2019.1635171
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim DY, Joe SG, Yang HS, Lee JY, Kim J-G, Yoon YH. Subfoveal choroidal thickness changes in treated idiopathic central serous chorioretinopathy and their association with recurrence. Retina. 2015;35(9):1867–1874. doi:10.1097/IAE.0000000000000557
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yamada K, Hayasaka S, Setogawa T. Fluorescein-angiographic patterns in patients with central serous chorioretinopathy at the initial visit. Ophthalmologica. 1992;205(2):69–76. doi:10.1159/000310315
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maltsev DS, Kulikov AN, Chhablani J. Topography-guided identification of leakage point in central serous chorioretinopathy: a base for fluorescein angiography-free focal laser photocoagulation. Br J Ophthalmol. 2018;102(9):1218–1225. doi:10.1136/bjophthalmol-2017-311338
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Warrow DJ, Hoang QV, Freund KB. Pachychoroid pigment epitheliopathy. Retina. 2013;33(8):1659–1672. doi:10.1097/IAE.0b013e3182953df4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rochepeau C, Kodjikian L, Garcia M-A, Mathis T. Optical coherence tomography angiography quantitative assessment of choriocapillaris blood flow in central serous chorioretinopathy. Am J Ophthalmol. 2019;201:82–83. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2019.01.014
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matet A, Daruich A, Hardy S, Behar-Cohen F. Patterns of choriocapillaris flow signal voids in central serous chorioretinopathy: an optical coherence tomography angiography study. Retina. 2018. doi:10.1097/IAE.0000000000002271
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bousquet E, Bonnin S, Mrejen S, Krivosic V, Tadayoni R, Gaudric A. Optical coherence tomography angiography of flat irregular pigment epithelium detachment in chronic central serous chorioretinopathy. Retina. 2018;38(3):629–638. doi:10.1097/IAE.0000000000001580
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim R-Y, Chung DH, Kim M, Park Y-H. Use of choroidal vascularity index for choroidal structural evaluation in central serous chorioretinopathy with choroidal neovascularization. Retina. 2019. doi:10.1097/IAE.0000000000002585
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yannuzzi LA. Type A behavior and central serous chorioretinopathy. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1986;84:799–845.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Spahn C, Wiek J, Burger T, Hansen L. Psychosomatic aspects in patients with central serous chorioretinopathy. Br J Physiol Opt. 2003;87(6):704–708. doi:10.1136/bjo.87.6.704
   Google Scholar
• Carlesimo SC, Piazzi G, Leone C, Di Santo L, Coccanari dè Fornari MA. Masuda’s Central Serous Chorioretinopathy (C.S.C.R.) and its somatic investment in Narcissism: our observations on new psychiatric nosography. Clin Ter. 2014;165(1):27–30. doi:10.7471/CT.2014.1657
   Google Scholar
• Conrad R, Weber NF, Lehnert M, Holz FG, Liedtke R, Eter N. Alexithymia and emotional distress in patients with central serous chorioretinopathy. Psychosomatics. 2007;48(6):489–495. doi:10.1176/appi.psy.48.6.489
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conrad R, Bodeewes I, Schilling G, Geiser F, Imbierowicz K, Liedtke R. Central serous chorioretinopathy and psychological stress. Ophthalmologe. 2000;97(8):527–531. doi:10.1007/s003470070059
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lahousen T, Painold A, Luxenberger W, Schienle A, Kapfhammer H-P, Ille R. Psychological factors associated with acute and chronic central serous chorioretinopathy. Nord J Psychiatry. 2016;70(1):24–30. doi:10.3109/08039488.2015.1041156
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conrad R, Geiser F, Kleiman A, Zur B, Karpawitz-Godt A. Temperament and character personality profile and illness-related stress in central serous chorioretinopathy. Sci World J. 2014;2014:1–7. doi:10.1155/2014/631687
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gelber GS, Schatz H. Loss of vision due to central serous chorioretinopathy following psychological stress. Am J Psychiatry. 1987;144(1):46–50. doi:10.1176/ajp.144.1.46
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bousquet E, Dhundass M, Lehmann M, et al. Shift work: a risk Factor for central serous chorioretinopathy. Am J Ophthalmol. 2016;165:23–28. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2016.02.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu B, Deng T, Zhang J. Risk factors for central serous chorioretinopathy. Retina. 2016;36(1):9–19. doi:10.1097/IAE.0000000000000837
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spahn C, Wiek J, Burger T. Operationalisierte psychodynamische Diagnostik (OPD) bei patienten mit chorioretinopathia centralis serosa. Psychother Psychosom Med Psychol. 2004;54(2):52–57. doi:10.1055/s-2003-812610
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tittl MK, Spaide RF, Wong D, et al. Systemic findings associated with central serous chorioretinopathy. Am J Ophthalmol. 1999;128(1):63–68. doi:10.1016/S0002-9394(99)00075-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mansuetta CC, Mason JO, Swanner J, et al. An association between central serous chorioretinopathy and gastroesophageal reflux disease. Am J Ophthalmol. 2004;137(6):1096–1100. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2004.01.054
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eom Y, Oh J, Kim S-W, Huh K. Systemic factors associated with central serous chorioretinopathy in Koreans. Korean J Ophthalmol. 2012;26(4):260. doi:10.3341/kjo.2012.26.4.260
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tsai D-C, Huang -C-C, Chen S-J, et al. Increased risk of erectile dysfunction among males with central serous chorioretinopathy - a retrospective cohort study. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh). 2013;91(7):666–671. doi:10.1111/j.1755-3768.2012.02528.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garg SP, Dada T, Talwar D, Biswas NR. Endogenous cortisol profile in patients with central serous chorioretinopathy. Br J Physiol Opt. 1997;81(11):962–964. doi:10.1136/bjo.81.11.962
   Google Scholar
• Haimovici R, Rumelt S, Melby J. Endocrine abnormalities in patients with central serous chorioretinopathy. Ophthalmology. 2003;110(4):698–703. doi:10.1016/S0161-6420(02)01975-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daruich A, Matet A, Dirani A, et al. Oral mineralocorticoid-receptor antagonists: real-life experience in clinical subtypes of nonresolving central serous chorioretinopathy with chronic epitheliopathy. Transl Vis Sci Technol. 2016;5(2):2. doi:10.1167/tvst.5.2.2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang D, Eliott D. Systemic mineralocorticoid antagonists in the treatment of central serous chorioretinopathy. Semin Ophthalmol. 2017;32(1):36–42. doi:10.1080/08820538.2016.1228418
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tewari HK, Gadia R, Kumar D, Venkatesh P, Garg SP. Sympathetic–parasympathetic activity and reactivity in central serous chorioretinopathy: a case–control study. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2006;47(8):3474. doi:10.1167/iovs.05-1246
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pierce KK, Lane RG. Central serous chorioretinopathy associated with the use of ephedra. Retin Cases Brief Rep. 2009;3(4):376–378. doi:10.1097/ICB.0b013e31818ad3ce
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Michael JC, Pak J, Pulido J, de Venecia G. Central serous chorioretinopathy associated with administration of sympathomimetic agents. Am J Ophthalmol. 2003;136(1):182–185. doi:10.1016/S0002-9394(03)00076-X
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fraunfelder FW, Fraunfelder FT. Central serous chorioretinopathy associated with sildenafil. Retina. 2008;28(4):606–609. doi:10.1097/IAE.0b013e31815ec2c8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grover DP. Obstructive sleep apnea and ocular disorders. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. 2010;21(6):454–458. doi:10.1097/ICU.0b013e32833f00dc
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kloos P, Laube I, Thoelen A. Obstructive sleep apnea in patients with central serous chorioretinopathy. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2008;246(9):1225–1228. doi:10.1007/s00417-008-0837-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leveque TK, Yu L, Musch DC, Chervin RD, Zacks DN. Central serous chorioretinopathy and risk for obstructive sleep apnea. Sleep Breath. 2007;11(4):253–257. doi:10.1007/s11325-007-0112-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arendt J. Shift work: coping with the biological clock. Occup Med (Chic Ill). 2010;60(1):10–20. doi:10.1093/occmed/kqp162
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gramajo AL, Marquez GE, Torres VE, et al. Therapeutic benefit of melatonin in refractory central serous chorioretinopathy. Eye. 2015;29(8):1036–1045. doi:10.1038/eye.2015.104
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park DW, Schatz H, Gaffney MM, Mcdonald HR, Johnson RN, Schaeffer D. Central serous chorioretinopathy in two families. Eur J Ophthalmol. 1998;8(1):42–47. doi:10.1177/112067219800800110
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayashi K, Hasegawa Y, Tokoro T. Indocyanine green angiography of central serous chorioretinopathy. Int Ophthalmol. 1986;9(1):37–41. doi:10.1007/BF00225936
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guyer DR, Yannuzzi LA, Slakter JS, Sorenson JA, Ho A, Orlock D. Digital indocyanine green videoangiography of central serous chorioretinopathy. Arch Ophthalmol. 1994;112(8):1057–1062. doi:10.1001/archopht.1994.01090200063023
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chung Y-R, Kim JW, Choi S-Y, Park SW, Kim JH, Lee K. Subfoveal choroidal thickness and vascular diameter in active and resolved central serous chorioretinopathy. Retina. 2018;38(1):102–107. doi:10.1097/IAE.0000000000001502
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prünte C, Flammer J. Choroidal capillary and venous congestion in central serous chorioretinopathy. Am J Ophthalmol. 1996;121(1):26–34. doi:10.1016/S0002-9394(14)70531-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kanyange ML, De Laey JJ. Long-term follow-up of central serous chorioretinopathy (CSCR). Bull Soc Belge Ophtalmol. 2002;284:39–44.
   Google Scholar
• Salehi M, Wenick AS, Law HA, Evans JR, Gehlbach P. Interventions for central serous chorioretinopathy: a network meta-analysis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;12:CD011841. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD011841.pub2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao M, Célérier I, Bousquet E, et al. Mineralocorticoid receptor is involved in rat and human ocular chorioretinopathy. J Clin Invest. 2012;122(7):2672–2679. doi:10.1172/JCI61427
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khosla PK, Rana SS, Tewari HK, Azad RU, Talwar D. Evaluation of visual function following argon laser photocoagulation in central serous retinopathy. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers. 1997;28(8):693–697.
   Google Scholar
• Ober MD, Yannuzzi LA, Do DV, et al. Photodynamic therapy for focal retinal pigment epithelial leaks secondary to central serous chorioretinopathy. Ophthalmology. 2005;112(12):2088–2094. doi:10.1016/J.OPHTHA.2005.06.026
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LIM SJ, ROH MI, KWON OW. Intravitreal bevacizumab injection for central serous chorioretinopathy. Retina. 2010;30(1):100–106. doi:10.1097/IAE.0b013e3181bcf0b4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smretschnig E, Ansari-Shahrezaei S, Hagen S, Glittenberg C, Krebs I, Binder S. Half-fluence photodynamic therapy in chronic central serous chorioretinopathy. Retina. 2013;33(2):316–323. doi:10.1097/IAE.0b013e318280769c
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robertson DM, Ilstrup D. Direct, indirect, and sham laser photocoagulation in the management of central serous chorioretinopathy. Am J Ophthalmol. 1983;95(4):457–466. doi:10.1016/0002-9394(83)90265-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spitznas M. Pathogenesis of central serous retinopathy: a new working hypothesis. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 1986;224(4):321–324. doi:10.1007/BF02150023
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chhablani J, Rani PK, Mathai A, Jalali S, Kozak I. Navigated focal laser photocoagulation for central serous chorioretinopathy. Clin Ophthalmol. 2014;8:1543–1547. doi:10.2147/OPTH.S67025
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Müller B, Tatsios J, Klonner J, Pilger D, Joussen AM. Navigated laser photocoagulation in patients with non-resolving and chronic central serous chorioretinopathy. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2018;256(9):1581–1588. doi:10.1007/s00417-018-4031-8
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mastropasqua L, Di Antonio L, Toto L, Mastropasqua A, Di Iorio A, Carpineto P. Central serous chorioretinopathy treated with navigated retinal laser photocoagulation: visual acuity and retinal sensitivity. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging Retina. 2015;46(3):349–354. doi:10.3928/23258160-20150323-09
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt-Erfurth U, Hasan T. Mechanisms of action of photodynamic therapy with verteporfin for the treatment of age-related macular degeneration. Surv Ophthalmol. 2000;45(3):195–214. doi:10.1016/S0039-6257(00)00158-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt-Erfurth U, Michels S, Barbazetto I, Laqua H. Photodynamic effects on choroidal neovascularization and physiological choroid. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2002;43(3):830–841.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan W-M, Lam DSC, Lai TYY, Tam BSM, Liu DTL, Chan CKM. Choroidal vascular remodelling in central serous chorioretinopathy after indocyanine green guided photodynamic therapy with verteporfin: a novel treatment at the primary disease level. Br J Ophthalmol. 2003;87(12):1453–1458. doi:10.1136/bjo.87.12.1453
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lai TYY, Chan W-M, Lam DSC. Transient reduction in retinal function revealed by multifocal electroretinogram after photodynamic therapy. Am J Ophthalmol. 2004;137(5):826–833. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2003.11.079
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tzekov R, Lin T, Zhang K-M, et al. Ocular changes after photodynamic therapy. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2006;47(1):377. doi:10.1167/iovs.05-0838
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Semeraro F, Romano MR, Danzi P, Morescalchi F, Costagliola C. Intravitreal bevacizumab versus low-fluence photodynamic therapy for treatment of chronic central serous chorioretinopathy. Jpn J Ophthalmol. 2012;56(6):608–612. doi:10.1007/s10384-012-0162-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan W-M, Lai TYY, Lai RYK, Liu DTL, Lam DSC. Half-dose verteporfin photodynamic therapy for acute central serous chorioretinopathy. Ophthalmology. 2008;115(10):1756–1765. doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2008.04.014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uetani R, Ito Y, Oiwa K, Ishikawa K, Terasaki H. Half-dose vs one-third-dose photodynamic therapy for chronic central serous chorioretinopathy. Eye. 2012;26(5):640–649. doi:10.1038/eye.2012.66
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicoló M, Eandi CM, Alovisi C, et al. Half-fluence versus half-dose photodynamic therapy in chronic central serous chorioretinopathy. Am J Ophthalmol. 2014;157(5):1033–1037.e2. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2014.01.022
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hussain N, Khanna R, Hussain A, Das T. Transpupillary thermotherapy for chronic central serous chorioretinopathy. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2006;244(8):1045–1051. doi:10.1007/s00417-005-0175-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shukla D, Kolluru C, Vignesh TP, Karthikprakash S, Kim R. Transpupillary thermotherapy for subfoveal leaks in central serous chorioretinopathy. Eye. 2008;22(1):100–106. doi:10.1038/sj.eye.6702449
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kawamura R, Kawamura R, Ideta H, et al. Transpupillary thermotherapy for atypical central serous chorioretinopathy. Clin Ophthalmol. 2012;6:175. doi:10.2147/OPTH.S28239
   Google Scholar
• Vujosevic S, Bottega E, Casciano M, Pilotto E, Convento E, Midena E. Microperimetry and fundus autofluorescence in diabetic macular edema. Retina. 2010;30(6):908–916. doi:10.1097/IAE.0b013e3181c96986
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luttrull JK, Chang DB, Margolis BWL, Dorin G, Luttrull DK. Laser resensitization of medically unresponsive neovascular age-related macular degeneration. Retina. 2015;35(6):1184–1194. doi:10.1097/IAE.0000000000000458
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luttrull JK. Low-intensity/high-density subthreshold diode micropulse laser for central serous chorioretinopathy. Retina. 2016;36(9):1658–1663. doi:10.1097/IAE.0000000000001005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kregel KC. Heat shock proteins: modifying factors in physiological stress responses and acquired thermotolerance. J Appl Physiol. 2002;92(5):2177–2186. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.01267.2001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scholz P, Altay L, Fauser S. Comparison of subthreshold micropulse laser (577 nm) treatment and half-dose photodynamic therapy in patients with chronic central serous chorioretinopathy. Eye. 2016;30(10):1371–1377. doi:10.1038/eye.2016.142
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russo A, Turano R, Morescalchi F, et al. Comparison of half-dose photodynamic therapy and 689 nm laser treatment in eyes with chronic central serous chorioretinopathy. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2017;255(6):1141–1148. doi:10.1007/s00417-017-3626-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schaal KB, Hoeh AE, Scheuerle A, Schuett F, Dithmar S. Intravitreal bevacizumab for treatment of chronic central serous chorioretinopathy. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2009;19(4):613–617. doi:10.1177/112067210901900415
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lim JW, Kim MU, Shin M-C. Aqueous humor and plasma levels of vascular endothelial growth factor and interleukin-8 in patients with central serous chorioretinopathy. Retina. 2010;30(9):1465–1471. doi:10.1097/IAE.0b013e3181d8e7fe
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bae SH, Heo JW, Kim C, et al. A randomized pilot study of low-fluence photodynamic therapy versus intravitreal ranibizumab for chronic central serous chorioretinopathy. Am J Ophthalmol. 2011;152(5):784–92.e2. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2011.04.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu HQ, Wang EQ, Zhang T, Chen YX. Photodynamic therapy and anti-vascular endothelial growth factor for acute central serous chorioretinopathy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eye. 2016;30(1):15–22. doi:10.1038/eye.2015.208
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moisseiev E, Holmes AJ, Moshiri A, Morse LS. Finasteride is effective for the treatment of central serous chorioretinopathy. Eye (Lond). 2016;30(6):850–856. doi:10.1038/eye.2016.53
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bousquet E, Beydoun T, Zhao M, Hassan L, Offret O, Behar-Cohen F. Mineralocorticoid receptor antagonism in the treatment of chronic central serous chorioretinopathy: a pilot study. Retina. 2013;33(10):2096–2102. doi:10.1097/IAE.0b013e318297a07a
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herold TR, Prause K, Wolf A, Mayer WJ, Ulbig MW. Spironolactone in the treatment of central serous chorioretinopathy – a case series. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2014;252(12):1985–1991. doi:10.1007/s00417-014-2780-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh RP, Sears JE, Bedi R, et al. Oral eplerenone for the management of chronic central serous chorioretinopathy. Int J Ophthalmol. 2015;8(2):310–314. doi:10.3980/j.issn.2222-3959.2015.02.17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pikkel J, Beiran I, Ophir A, Miller B. Acetazolamide for central serous retinopathy. Ophthalmology. 2002;109(9):1723–1725. doi:10.1016/S0161-6420(02)01157-0
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ross A, Ross AH, Mohamed Q. Review and update of central serous chorioretinopathy. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. 2011;22(3):166–173. doi:10.1097/ICU.0b013e3283459826
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forooghian F, Meleth AD, Cukras C, Chew EY, Wong WT, Meyerle CB. Finasteride for chronic central serous chorioretinopathy. Retina. 2011;31(4):766–771. doi:10.1097/IAE.0b013e3181f04a35
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim M, Lee S-C, Lee S-J. Intravitreal ranibizumab for acute central serous chorioretinopathy. Ophthalmologica. 2013;229(3):152–157. doi:10.1159/000345495
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seong HK, Bae JH, Kim ES, Han JR, Nam WH, Kim HK. Intravitreal bevacizumab to treat acute central serous chorioretinopathy: short-term effect. Ophthalmologica. 2009;223(5):343–347. doi:10.1159/000224782
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chung Y-R, Seo EJ, Lew HM, Lee KH. Lack of positive effect of intravitreal bevacizumab in central serous chorioretinopathy: meta-analysis and review. Eye. 2013;27(12):1339–1346. doi:10.1038/eye.2013.236
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lim JW, Ryu SJ, Shin MC. The effect of intravitreal bevacizumab in patients with acute central serous chorioretinopathy. Korean J Ophthalmol. 2010;24(3):155. doi:10.3341/kjo.2010.24.3.155
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mehta PH, Meyerle C, Sivaprasad S, Boon C, Chhablani J. Preferred practice pattern in central serous chorioretinopathy. Br J Physiol Opt. 2017;101(5):587–590. doi:10.1136/bjophthalmol-2016-309247
   Google Scholar
• Fine HF, Ober MD, Hariprasad SM. Current concepts in managing central serous chorioretinopathy. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging Retina. 2014;45(1):9–13. doi:10.3928/23258160-20131220-01
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan SY, Wang Q, Wei WB, Jonas JB. Optical coherence tomographic angiography in central serous chorioretinopathy. Retina. 2016;36(11):2051–2058. doi:10.1097/IAE.0000000000001064
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar